pith. sign in

arxiv: 2511.18693 · v2 · submitted 2025-11-24 · ⚛️ physics.ins-det · hep-ex

Development of a dual-phase xenon time projection chamber prototype for the RELICS experiment

Lingfeng Xie , Jiajun Liu , Yifei Zhao , Chang Cai , Guocai Chen , Jiangyu Chen , Huayu Dai , Rundong Fang
show 45 more authors
Hongrui Gao Fei Gao Jingfan Gu Xiaoran Guo Jiheng Guo Chengjie Jia Gaojun Jin Fali Ju Yanzhou Hao Xu Han Yang Lei Kaihang Li Meng Li Minhua Li Ruize Li Shengchao Li Siyin Li Tao Li Qing Lin Sheng Lv Guang Luo Yuanyuan Ren Chuanping Shen Mingzhuo Song Lijun Tong Yuhuang Wan Xiaoyu Wang Wei Wang Xiaoping Wang Zihu Wang Yuehuan Wei Liming Weng Xiang Xiao Yikai Xu Jijun Yang Litao Yang Long Yang Jingqiang Ye Jiachen Yu Qian Yue Yuyong Yue Tianyuan Zha Bingwei Zhang Yuming Zhang Chenhui Zhu (RELICS Collaboration)
This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-17 05:52 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.ins-det hep-ex
keywords dual-phase xenon TPCprototype detectorRELICS experimentcoherent elastic neutrino scatteringsub-keV threshold37Ar calibrationreactor neutrinostime projection chamber
0
0 comments X

The pith

A prototype dual-phase xenon time projection chamber for RELICS reaches the sub-keV energy threshold needed for reactor neutrino scattering.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper describes the design, construction, and operation of a prototype dual-phase xenon time projection chamber built to validate key technologies for the RELICS experiment, which targets coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering from reactor antineutrinos. The authors report that the detector achieved a single-electron gain of 34.30 plus or minus 0.01 photoelectrons per electron and successfully recorded 0.27 keV events from 37Ar L-shell decays. This performance demonstrates that the prototype meets the low energy threshold required to observe the small nuclear recoils expected in the full experiment. The work also develops and validates analysis techniques and simulation tools that will support larger-scale data taking.

Core claim

The prototype dual-phase xenon time projection chamber was successfully constructed and operated, demonstrating the sub-keV energy threshold required for the RELICS physics program through a measured single electron gain of 34.30 plus or minus 0.01 photoelectrons per electron and the detection of 0.27 keV L-shell decay events from 37Ar, while also establishing essential data analysis techniques and simulation frameworks for future operations.

What carries the argument

The dual-phase xenon time projection chamber prototype, which uses liquid xenon scintillation and gas-phase electron amplification to reconstruct low-energy interactions with high sensitivity.

If this is right

  • The core technologies including the TPC, cryogenic system, xenon purification, and data acquisition are feasible for the full-scale RELICS detector.
  • Validated analysis techniques and simulation frameworks now provide the methodological basis for processing data in the larger experiment.
  • The demonstrated energy threshold enables detection of the tiny nuclear recoils from coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering off xenon.
  • Reliable single-electron response supports the low-background requirements of the reactor neutrino measurement program.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If scaling succeeds, the experiment could yield new limits on neutrino non-standard interactions or electromagnetic properties at low energies.
  • The low-threshold operation methods may transfer to other xenon-based searches for dark matter or solar neutrinos.
  • Similar staged prototype programs could reduce technical risk for future large liquid-noble detectors.

Load-bearing premise

The performance metrics and subsystem reliability observed in the small prototype will scale without major new problems in background control, xenon purity, or electric-field uniformity when the detector volume increases to the full RELICS size.

What would settle it

A repeat calibration run that fails to detect 0.27 keV 37Ar L-shell events or measures a single-electron gain below 30 photoelectrons per electron would show that the claimed sub-keV threshold capability has not been achieved.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2511.18693 by Bingwei Zhang, Chang Cai, Chengjie Jia, Chenhui Zhu (RELICS Collaboration), Chuanping Shen, Fali Ju, Fei Gao, Gaojun Jin, Guang Luo, Guocai Chen, Hongrui Gao, Huayu Dai, Jiachen Yu, Jiajun Liu, Jiangyu Chen, Jiheng Guo, Jijun Yang, Jingfan Gu, Jingqiang Ye, Kaihang Li, Lijun Tong, Liming Weng, Lingfeng Xie, Litao Yang, Long Yang, Meng Li, Mingzhuo Song, Minhua Li, Qian Yue, Qing Lin, Ruize Li, Rundong Fang, Shengchao Li, Sheng Lv, Siyin Li, Tao Li, Tianyuan Zha, Wei Wang, Xiang Xiao, Xiaoping Wang, Xiaoran Guo, Xiaoyu Wang, Xu Han, Yang Lei, Yanzhou Hao, Yifei Zhao, Yikai Xu, Yuanyuan Ren, Yuehuan Wei, Yuhuang Wan, Yuming Zhang, Yuyong Yue, Zihu Wang.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Schematic cross-section of the dual-phase xenon TPC demonstrator designed for the RELICS experiment. The main cutaway view illustrates the outer vessel, inner vessel, and internal support structures, while the enlarged inset highlights the TPC layout. The top and bottom photomultiplier (PMT) arrays detect scintillation and electroluminescence photons. The cathode and gate, together with the field-shaping r… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: The map shows the fractional deviation of the charge yield in the X–Z cross-section within the TPC inner drift volume, defined as Δ𝐶𝑌 (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) 𝐶𝑌ave = 𝐶𝑌 (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)−𝐶𝑌ave 𝐶𝑌ave . The simulation incorporates the field￾dependent ionization response of LXe, enabling position-dependent corrections to be applied to the measured S2 signals. 4 kV/cm below the interface. The stable liquid-gas interface is precisely co… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: The electric field magnitude distribution in the X–Z cross￾section within the TPC, simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics. The color scale indicates the field strength in unit of V/cm. The simulation visualizes the high-field extraction region between the gate and anode (top red area), and the drift field in the central volume, maintained by the field-shaping rings. The black lines represent the electric fiel… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: shows a representative SPE charge spectrum ob￾tained from the calibration of a PMT channel. The fitted model matches the measured distribution, yielding a mean gain of G = (5.207 ± 0.048) × 106 for an operating bias of −800 V, demonstrating the capability to resolve individual photoelec￾trons and enabling low-threshold signal detection. This calibra￾tion result serves as a reference for determining the num… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Schematic diagram of the RELICS prototype cryogenic system and xenon handling infrastructure. The functional layout illustrates the closed-loop xenon circulation, including the cryocooler (CRY) with its cold compressor and cold head, the heat exchanger, the purification loop with pump and getter, and the calibration source injection lines for 37Ar and 83mKr. Blue lines denote the LXe flow path, whereas ora… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Schematic of the RELICS semi-distributed slow control (SC) architecture, illustrating the hierarchical data and command flow across five functional layers. At the foundational Instruments layer, physical hardware such as the cryogenic system, various sensors are managed by the layer above. The controllers layer, featuring a Siemens S7-1200 programmable logic controller (PLC), provides robust, real-time aut… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Distribution of rise time (defined as the interval between the 20% and 50% cumulative area) and area for all recorded peaks from a run with calibration source. This parameter distribution allows dis￾crimination between different signal types. S1 signals are characterized by short rise times (below 50 ns), while slower S2 signals form a dis￾tinct band at higher rise times. Calibration sources, such as 37Ar … view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Comparison of 83mKr S2 event positions between center of gravity (CoG) and machine learning-based spatial reconstruction with domain adaptation. Top: The distribution of the S2 signal position from CoG algorithm showing significant spatial distortions caused by geometric effects, with events displayed in arbitrary units. Bottom: The same events after applying the Deep Residual Network reconstruc￾tion algor… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Simulated LCE map for S1 signals, showing its dependence on the event vertical position (Z) and squared radius (R2 ). The map generated using the tuned optical parameters reveals that the LCE is highest near the bottom-center of the TPC and decreases towards the top and outer radius. This map is a crucial input for position-dependent S1 signal corrections. scanned across appropriate ranges until the simul… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Implementation of a proportional scintillation simulation in a single grid cell using Garfield++. The image illustrates the full process of S2 signal generation. The black lines represent the drift trajectories of individual electrons originating in the LXe. The background color visualizes the magnitude of the electric field, distinguishing the weaker drift field in the liquid from the very strong amplifi… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Measurement of the electron lifetime using 41.5 keV 83mKr decay events. The 2D histogram shows the spatially corrected S2 area (scS2) as a function of electron drift time for events within a central fiducial volume. The attenuation is due to electron attachment to elec￾tronegative impurities. The black data points indicate the mean scS2 in each drift time bin, fitted with an exponential decay (red dashed … view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Demonstration of the S2-only analysis strategy achieving sub-keV sensitivity in the RELICS dual-phase xenon prototype TPC. Top: Two-dimensional distribution of S2 signal area (PE) versus rise time (ns). The comparison between all detected peaks (transparent) and the selected S2 signals, after applying the high-energy (HE) veto and fiducial volume (FV) cuts, illustrates the reduction of the DE background. … view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The RELICS (REactor neutrino LIquid xenon Coherent elastic Scattering) experiment aims to detect coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering from reactor antineutrinos using a dual-phase xenon time projection chamber. To validate the detector concept and ensure technical reliability for the full-scale experiment, a dedicated prototype was designed, constructed, and operated. This work presents an overview of the design, construction, and operational performance of the prototype, with emphasis on its major subsystems, including the TPC, cryogenic and xenon purification systems, slow control, and data acquisition. During operation, the detector demonstrated the capability to achieve a sub-keV energy threshold required for the RELICS physics program, as reflected by a measured single electron gain of 34.30~$\pm$~0.01~(stat.)~PE/e$^-$ and the successful detection of 0.27~keV L-shell decay events from $^{37}$Ar. In addition, essential data analysis techniques and simulation frameworks were developed and validated, establishing the methodological foundation for future RELICS operations. The successful construction and operation of this prototype confirm the feasibility of the core technologies and provide a crucial experimental basis for the final RELICS detector.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript reports the design, construction, and operation of a prototype dual-phase xenon time projection chamber for the RELICS experiment. It describes major subsystems (TPC, cryogenics, purification, slow control, DAQ) and presents operational results including a measured single-electron gain of 34.30 ± 0.01 (stat.) PE/e− together with detection of 0.27 keV 37Ar L-shell events, from which the authors conclude that the prototype has demonstrated the sub-keV threshold required for the RELICS physics program and has confirmed the feasibility of the core technologies.

Significance. If the reported gain and threshold performance are reproducible and the associated systematics are under control, the work supplies a concrete experimental benchmark for dual-phase xenon TPC operation at the sub-keV level. This benchmark, together with the developed analysis techniques and simulation frameworks, constitutes a necessary technical milestone for any future reactor-neutrino coherent-scattering search that relies on the same detector architecture.

major comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The claim that the prototype 'confirm[s] the feasibility of the core technologies' for the full-scale RELICS detector is load-bearing for the paper's central message, yet no quantitative discussion, simulation, or extrapolation is supplied that addresses how xenon purity, electric-field uniformity, or background rates will behave when the active volume is increased by the factor required for the final detector. This omission directly weakens the link between the prototype metrics and the stated physics program.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] The numerical value of the single-electron gain is given with a statistical uncertainty of ±0.01 but without any accompanying systematic uncertainty or description of the fit procedure used to extract it; this information is needed to assess the robustness of the sub-keV threshold claim.
  2. The manuscript would benefit from an explicit statement of the active target mass or fiducial volume of the prototype so that readers can judge the scale factor to the final RELICS detector.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their careful reading and constructive feedback on our manuscript. We address the major comment below.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The claim that the prototype 'confirm[s] the feasibility of the core technologies' for the full-scale RELICS detector is load-bearing for the paper's central message, yet no quantitative discussion, simulation, or extrapolation is supplied that addresses how xenon purity, electric-field uniformity, or background rates will behave when the active volume is increased by the factor required for the final detector. This omission directly weakens the link between the prototype metrics and the stated physics program.

    Authors: We agree that the abstract claim would benefit from more precise wording to better reflect the manuscript's scope. This work reports the design, construction, and operation of the prototype, including demonstration of a single-electron gain of 34.30 ± 0.01 (stat.) PE/e− and detection of 0.27 keV 37Ar L-shell events that establish sub-keV threshold performance. The manuscript does not include quantitative extrapolations or simulations for xenon purity, electric-field uniformity, or background rates at the full RELICS detector scale, as such detailed scaling analyses require additional engineering studies and are planned for future publications. We will revise the abstract to state that the prototype confirms the feasibility of the core technologies at the demonstrated scale and provides an essential experimental foundation for the RELICS program. A brief note on the need for future scaling studies will be added to the conclusions. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: direct experimental report of prototype performance

full rationale

This is an experimental hardware paper reporting the design, construction, and measured operation of a xenon TPC prototype. The central results are direct measurements (single-electron gain of 34.30 ± 0.01 PE/e− and detection of 0.27 keV 37Ar events) obtained during prototype running; no equations, fits, or predictions are presented that reduce by construction to parameters defined from the same data. Subsystem descriptions and simulation validation are presented as supporting methodology rather than load-bearing derivations. The report is therefore self-contained against external benchmarks of detector performance and contains no self-definitional, fitted-input, or self-citation chains that collapse the claimed results.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on standard assumptions of xenon scintillation and charge transport physics plus engineering choices for cryogenics and purification. No new theoretical entities or free parameters are introduced in the abstract.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Xenon can be purified and maintained at levels that allow single-electron sensitivity in a dual-phase TPC.
    Required to interpret the reported single-electron gain and sub-keV threshold as achievable in practice.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5712 in / 1361 out tokens · 51189 ms · 2026-05-17T05:52:18.662174+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Lean theorems connected to this paper

Citations machine-checked in the Pith Canon. Every link opens the source theorem in the public Lean library.

What do these tags mean?
matches
The paper's claim is directly supported by a theorem in the formal canon.
supports
The theorem supports part of the paper's argument, but the paper may add assumptions or extra steps.
extends
The paper goes beyond the formal theorem; the theorem is a base layer rather than the whole result.
uses
The paper appears to rely on the theorem as machinery.
contradicts
The paper's claim conflicts with a theorem or certificate in the canon.
unclear
Pith found a possible connection, but the passage is too broad, indirect, or ambiguous to say the theorem truly supports the claim.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

34 extracted references · 34 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    Freedman,Coherent Neutrino Nucleus Scattering as a Probe of the Weak Neutral Current, Phys

    D.Z. Freedman,Coherent Neutrino Nucleus Scattering as a Probe of the Weak Neutral Current, Phys. Rev. D9, 1389(1974)

    work page 1974

  2. [2]

    Coloma, et al.,Curtailing the Dark Side in Non-Standard Neu- trino Interactions, JHEP04, 116(2017)

    P. Coloma, et al.,Curtailing the Dark Side in Non-Standard Neu- trino Interactions, JHEP04, 116(2017)

    work page 2017

  3. [3]

    Patton, et al.,Neutrino-nucleus coherent scattering as a probe of neutron density distributions, Phys

    K. Patton, et al.,Neutrino-nucleus coherent scattering as a probe of neutron density distributions, Phys. Rev. C86, 024612(2012)

    work page 2012

  4. [4]

    Chattaraj, et al.,Probing conventional and new physics at the ESS with coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering, JHEP05, 064(2025)

    A. Chattaraj, et al.,Probing conventional and new physics at the ESS with coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering, JHEP05, 064(2025)

    work page 2025

  5. [5]

    Horowitz, et al.,Neutrino-nucleon scattering in super- nova matter from the virial expansion, Phys

    C.J. Horowitz, et al.,Neutrino-nucleon scattering in super- nova matter from the virial expansion, Phys. Rev. C95(2), 025801(2017)

    work page 2017

  6. [6]

    Akimov, et al.,Observation of coherent elastic neutrino- nucleus scattering, Science357(6356), 1123(2017)

    D. Akimov, et al.,Observation of coherent elastic neutrino- nucleus scattering, Science357(6356), 1123(2017)

    work page 2017

  7. [7]

    Akimov, et al.,First Measurement of Coherent Elastic Neutrino-Nucleus Scattering on Argon, Phys

    D. Akimov, et al.,First Measurement of Coherent Elastic Neutrino-Nucleus Scattering on Argon, Phys. Rev. Lett.126(1), 012002(2021)

    work page 2021

  8. [8]

    Adamski, et al.,Evidence of Coherent Elastic Neutrino-Nucleus Scattering with COHERENT’s Germanium Array, Phys

    S. Adamski, et al.,Evidence of Coherent Elastic Neutrino-Nucleus Scattering with COHERENT’s Germanium Array, Phys. Rev. Lett. 134, 231801(2025)

    work page 2025

  9. [9]

    Ackermann, et al.,Direct observation of coherent elastic an- tineutrino–nucleus scattering, Nature643(8074), 1229(2025)

    N. Ackermann, et al.,Direct observation of coherent elastic an- tineutrino–nucleus scattering, Nature643(8074), 1229(2025)

    work page 2025

  10. [10]

    Aprile, et al.,First Indication of Solar 8BNeutrinos via Co- herent Elastic Neutrino-Nucleus Scattering with XENONnT, Phys

    E. Aprile, et al.,First Indication of Solar 8BNeutrinos via Co- herent Elastic Neutrino-Nucleus Scattering with XENONnT, Phys. Rev. Lett.133(19), 191002(2024)

    work page 2024

  11. [11]

    Bo, et al.,First Indication of Solar 8BNeutrinos through Co- herent Elastic Neutrino-Nucleus Scattering in PandaX-4T, Phys

    Z. Bo, et al.,First Indication of Solar 8BNeutrinos through Co- herent Elastic Neutrino-Nucleus Scattering in PandaX-4T, Phys. Rev. Lett.133(19), 191001(2024)

    work page 2024

  12. [12]

    Cai, et al.,Reactor neutrino liquid xenon coherent elastic scat- tering experiment, Phys

    C. Cai, et al.,Reactor neutrino liquid xenon coherent elastic scat- tering experiment, Phys. Rev. D110(7), 072011(2024)

    work page 2024

  13. [13]

    Qian, J.C

    X. Qian, J.C. Peng,Physics with Reactor Neutrinos, Rept. Prog. Phys.82(3), 036201(2019)

    work page 2019

  14. [14]

    Aprile, T

    E. Aprile, T. Doke,Liquid Xenon Detectors for Particle Physics and Astrophysics, Rev. Mod. Phys.82, 2053(2010) Lingfeng Xie et al.: Development of a dual-phase xenon time projection chamber prototype for the RELICS experiment 17

    work page 2053

  15. [15]

    Aprile, et al.,Emission of single and few electrons in XENON1T and limits on light dark matter, Phys

    E. Aprile, et al.,Emission of single and few electrons in XENON1T and limits on light dark matter, Phys. Rev. D106(2), 022001(2022)

    work page 2022

  16. [16]

    Aprile, et al.,XENONnT analysis: Signal reconstruction, cali- bration, and event selection, Phys

    E. Aprile, et al.,XENONnT analysis: Signal reconstruction, cali- bration, and event selection, Phys. Rev. D111(6), 062006(2025)

    work page 2025

  17. [17]

    Kravitz, et al.,Measurements of angle-resolved reflectivity of PTFE in liquid xenon with IBEX, Eur

    S. Kravitz, et al.,Measurements of angle-resolved reflectivity of PTFE in liquid xenon with IBEX, Eur. Phys. J. C80(3), 262(2020)

    work page 2020

  18. [18]

    Hu, et al.,Development of the Liquid Level Meters for the PandaX Dark Matter Detector, Chin

    J. Hu, et al.,Development of the Liquid Level Meters for the PandaX Dark Matter Detector, Chin. Phys. C38(5), 056002(2014)

    work page 2014

  19. [19]

    Szydagis, et al.,A review of NEST models for liquid xenon and an exhaustive comparison with other approaches, Front

    M. Szydagis, et al.,A review of NEST models for liquid xenon and an exhaustive comparison with other approaches, Front. Detect. Sci. Technol.2, 1480975(2024)

    work page 2024

  20. [20]

    Aprile, et al.,Material radiopurity control in the XENONnT experiment, Eur

    E. Aprile, et al.,Material radiopurity control in the XENONnT experiment, Eur. Phys. J. C82(7), 599(2022) 21.COMSOL Multiphysics ® v6.1. COMSOL AB, Stockholm, Swe- den

    work page 2022

  21. [21]

    Xu, et al.,Electron extraction efficiency study for dual- phase xenon dark matter experiments, Phys

    J. Xu, et al.,Electron extraction efficiency study for dual- phase xenon dark matter experiments, Phys. Rev. D99(10), 103024(2019)

    work page 2019

  22. [22]

    Zhao, et al.,The cryogenics and xenon handling system for the PandaX-4T experiment, JINST16(06), T06007(2021)

    L. Zhao, et al.,The cryogenics and xenon handling system for the PandaX-4T experiment, JINST16(06), T06007(2021)

    work page 2021

  23. [23]

    Aprile, et al.,Performance of a cryogenic system prototype for the XENON1T detector, Journal of Instrumentation7(10), P10001(2012)

    E. Aprile, et al.,Performance of a cryogenic system prototype for the XENON1T detector, Journal of Instrumentation7(10), P10001(2012)

    work page 2012

  24. [24]

    Cryotronics,Appendix F: PID Temperature Control

    L.S. Cryotronics,Appendix F: PID Temperature Control. URL https://www.lakeshore.com/docs/default-source/ temperature-catalog/lstc_appendixf_l.pdf

    work page

  25. [25]

    librosa/librosa: 0.6.3,

    J. Aalbers, et al., Axfoundation/strax: v1.6.4 (2024). DOI 10.5281/ zenodo.11355772. URLhttps://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo. 11355772

    work page doi:10.5281/zenodo 2024

  26. [26]

    Guo, et al., Preparation and measurement of an 37Ar source for liquid xenon detector calibration (2025)

    X.N. Guo, et al., Preparation and measurement of an 37Ar source for liquid xenon detector calibration (2025). arXiv:2509.04829

    work page arXiv 2025

  27. [27]

    Zhang, et al., 83Rb/83𝑚Krproduction and cross-section mea- surement with 3.4 MeV and 20 MeV proton beams, Phys

    D. Zhang, et al., 83Rb/83𝑚Krproduction and cross-section mea- surement with 3.4 MeV and 20 MeV proton beams, Phys. Rev. C 105, 014604(2022)

    work page 2022

  28. [28]

    Guo, et al., A domain adaptive position reconstruction method for time projection chamber based on deep neural network, (2025)

    X. Guo, et al., A domain adaptive position reconstruction method for time projection chamber based on deep neural network, (2025). arXiv:2510.24329

    work page arXiv 2025

  29. [29]

    Agostinelli, et al.,Geant4—a simulation toolkit, Nucl

    S. Agostinelli, et al.,Geant4—a simulation toolkit, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A506(3), 250(2003)

    work page 2003

  30. [30]

    Chen, et al.,BambooMC — A Geant4-based simulation pro- gram for the PandaX experiments, JINST16(09), T09004(2021)

    X. Chen, et al.,BambooMC — A Geant4-based simulation pro- gram for the PandaX experiments, JINST16(09), T09004(2021)

    work page 2021

  31. [31]

    Hitachi, et al.,New approach to the calculation of the re- fractive index of liquid and solid xenon, J

    A. Hitachi, et al.,New approach to the calculation of the re- fractive index of liquid and solid xenon, J. Chem. Phys.123(23), 234508(2005)

    work page 2005

  32. [32]

    Seidel, R.E

    G.M. Seidel, R.E. Lanou, W. Yao,Rayleigh scattering in rare gas liquids, Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A489, 189(2002)

    work page 2002

  33. [33]

    Bricola, et al.,Noble-gas liquid detectors: Measurement of light diffusion and reflectivity on commonly adopted inner surface materials, Nucl

    S. Bricola, et al.,Noble-gas liquid detectors: Measurement of light diffusion and reflectivity on commonly adopted inner surface materials, Nucl. Phys. B Proc. Suppl.172, 260(2007)

    work page 2007

  34. [34]

    Schindler, R

    H. Schindler, R. Veenhof,Garfield++: Simulation of gaseous detectors, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser.1616, 012001(2023)

    work page 2023