Pith. sign in

REVIEW 4 major objections 5 minor 97 references

Characterising the molecular line emission in the asymmetric Oph-IRS 48 dust trap: Temperatures, timescales, and sub-thermal excitation

T0 review · 4 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-12 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗ Review JSON

Pith's one-line read The paper establishes that SO2 emission in the Oph-IRS 48 dust trap is thermalised at about 55 K near the midplane, while CH3OH and H2CO are sub-thermally excited in higher disk layers, so their rotational temperatures of roughly 125 K…

desk verdict Careful new ALMA maps of IRS 48, but the sub-thermal excitation claim rests on RADEX grids that contradict the paper's own optically thick sliver scenario. read the letter →

arxiv 2411.12418 v1 pith:MEMJVOEY submitted 2024-11-19 astro-ph.EP

Milou Temmink , Alice S. Booth , Margot Leemker , Nienke van der Marel , Ewine F. van Dishoeck , Lucy Evans , Luke Keyte , Charles J. Law
show 3 more authors
Shota Notsu Karin Öberg Catherine Walsh
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.EP
keywords astrochemistryprotoplanetarydisksdusttrapssub-thermalexcitationrotationaldiagramanalysisnon-LTEradiativetransferALMAobservationsIRS48
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper aims to pin down where in the vertically layered Oph-IRS 48 disk the molecules SO2, CH3OH, and H2CO actually emit, and what that implies for the gas temperature and chemistry. Its central claim is that SO2 emission is thermalised in a deep layer near the midplane at about 55 K, while CH3OH and H2CO are sub-thermally excited in higher layers at z/r ≈ 0.17–0.25, so their LTE rotational temperatures of ~125 K and 150–350 K underestimate the true kinetic temperature. If this is right, low-mass disks like IRS 48 cannot be characterised with simple LTE rotational diagrams for these molecules, and the vertical ordering of molecular emission is CH3OH/H2CO highest, 13CO below, and SO2 deepest. The paper also argues that short photodissociation timescales explain the compact azimuthal extent of CH3OH and the wider extent of SO2, while H2CO's wider extent requires an additional gas-phase formation reservoir, and that the H2CO emission originates from a narrow radial sliver about 10 au wide at the inner edge of the dust trap.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing tools are the rotational diagram analysis (plotting upper-level column densities against upper-level energies and fitting a straight line to extract rotational temperature and total column density under LTE) and RADEX non-LTE grids that compute how much the rotational temperature deviates from the kinetic temperature across density and temperature space. The scatter in the CH3OH rotational diagram is the diagnostic sign of sub-thermal excitation, and the RADEX grids place the thermalisation boundary near n ≈ $10^{8}$ $cm^{-3}$ for SO2 and H2CO and above $10^{9}$ $cm^{-3}$ for CH3OH. The DALI thermochemical model of the IRS 48 dust trap supplies the gas density, gas temperature, and dust temperature structure that locates these boundaries in the disk and is also used to compute desorption, freeze-out, photodissociation, and turbulent-mixing timescales.

What would settle it

Measure the kinetic temperature directly in the CH3OH and H2CO emitting layers, for example by observing a line with a much higher upper-level energy and critical density than those studied here, or by resolving the vertical emission height with channel maps at sub-0.1" resolution and comparing with the rotational temperatures.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

Using 13, 22, and 7 transitions of SO2, CH3OH, and H2CO, the paper constructs pixel-by-pixel rotational diagrams and temperature maps. SO2 gives a well-behaved rotational diagram with T = 54.8 ± 1.4 K, which the paper reads as thermalised emission from a layer within about 5 au of the midplane where gas densities reach roughly $10^{8}$ $cm^{-3}$. CH3OH, by contrast, gives T = 125.5(+3.7/−3.5) K but with large scatter in the rotational diagram, and H2CO line ratios imply T ≈ 150–350 K; non-LTE RADEX grids show that at the model densities of the dust trap both CH3OH and H2CO are sub-thermally excited, meaning their derived rotational temperatures sit below the kinetic temperature. The paper further finds that the SO2 temperature map hints at a radial gradient but that no vortex-induced azimuthal temperature variation is present, and that photodissociation timescales, not turbulent mixing, best explain the observed azimuthal extents.

Load-bearing premise

The DALI model of Leemker et al. (2023) correctly predicts the gas density and temperature structure of the IRS 48 dust trap, and it is used both to locate the thermalisation boundary for the RADEX comparison and to compute every desorption, freeze-out, photodissociation, and turbulent-mixing timescale.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • For low-mass disks, LTE rotational-diagram temperatures for CH3OH and H2CO will systematically underestimate kinetic temperatures, so non-LTE analyses are needed to derive reliable gas temperatures and abundances.
  • SO2 traces the deepest molecular layer probed here, a region within about 5 au of the midplane (z/r < 0.1) at roughly 55 K, while CH3OH and H2CO trace elevated layers near z/r ≈ 0.17–0.25.
  • Photodissociation timescales of under a year in the elevated emitting layers explain why CH3OH is azimuthally compact and why SO2 can spread over roughly a quarter of an orbit, but they cannot explain H2CO's wider extent without invoking gas-phase formation from photodissociation products of CH3OH and H2O.
  • If H2CO is optically thick, as the low isotopologue ratio suggests, its emission must come from a narrow radial sliver about 10 au wide at the inner edge of the dust trap, and its measured column density is likely beam-diluted by a factor of order 500.
  • Any vortex-induced temperature variation in the midplane must be smaller than about 2 K, since the SO2 temperature map shows no azimuthal pattern despite its small pixel-to-pixel uncertainties.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the sub-thermal excitation picture is right, then existing and future LTE-based chemical surveys of low-mass disks may need re-interpretation: kinetic temperatures could be substantially higher than the rotational temperatures used to infer freeze-out, desorption, and volatile delivery to forming planets.
  • The sliver argument makes a sharp, testable prediction: high-resolution ALMA observations with beams smaller than about 8 au should resolve a narrow radial band of H2CO and CH3OH emission at the inner edge of the dust trap rather than a broad molecular layer.
  • The claim that H2CO is sustained by gas-phase formation implies that the azimuthal extent of H2CO should be spatially correlated with photodissociation products of CH3OH and H2O, such as CH3 and OH; mapping those radicals could confirm or refute the proposed reservoir.
  • The inferred ~2 K upper limit on vortex temperature imprints could be sharpened by observing a midplane tracer at higher spatial resolution, which would directly test whether the anticyclonic vortex motion is actually generating a detectable thermal signature.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

4 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper presents an analysis of ALMA Band 7 observations of SO2, CH3OH, and H2CO line emission in the asymmetric dust trap around Oph-IRS 48. Using 13, 22, and 7 transitions of the three species, the authors perform pixel-by-pixel rotational diagram analyses for SO2 and CH3OH and use line ratios with RADEX non-LTE calculations for H2CO. They derive rotational temperatures of ~55 K for SO2 and ~125 K for CH3OH, and temperature maps for H2CO in the range ~150-350 K. The well-behaved SO2 rotational diagram indicates thermalized emission near the midplane at densities above ~10^8 cm^-3, while the scattered CH3OH diagram and the H2CO line ratios are interpreted as sub-thermal excitation at elevated layers (z/r ~0.17-0.25), meaning the rotational temperatures underestimate kinetic temperatures. The authors also compute desorption, freeze-out, photodissociation, and turbulent mixing timescales using the DALI model of Leemker et al. (2023), and discuss implications for vertical layering, azimuthal extents, and a possible narrow radial 'sliver' for optically thick H2CO emission.

Significance. If the conclusions hold, the paper provides a valuable demonstration that multi-molecule, multi-transition ALMA analyses can constrain vertical thermal and chemical structure in low-mass planet-forming disks, and that non-LTE excitation is important for molecules such as CH3OH and H2CO in such disks. The study uses a large set of lines per molecule, applies a consistent pixel-by-pixel methodology, and presents maps of temperatures and column densities that can be compared with models. The paper is transparent about its limitations, including the reliance on a thermochemical model for gas densities and the ambiguity in optical depth. The proposed 'sliver' geometry and the predicted vertical ordering (SO2 deep, CH3OH/H2CO high) are falsifiable with higher angular resolution observations, which the authors explicitly identify. The analysis is based on public ALMA data and the methods are standard, making the work reproducible in principle.

major comments (4)
  1. [5.1 and 5.3.1] The RADEX thermalization grids in Figure 5 are computed at a fixed column density of N=10^12 cm^-2 to ensure optically thin emission, yet Section 5.3.1 argues that the observed column densities are beam-diluted by a factor of ~500 and that the emission (especially H2CO, and likely CH3OH) is optically thick. At the implied column densities (e.g., N(CH3OH) ~6x10^16 cm^-2), line trapping can raise the radiation field within the lines and shift the thermalization boundary to volume densities well below those shown in Figure 5. The sub-thermal excitation conclusion for CH3OH and H2CO is therefore not robust against the column density uncertainty; the authors should re-run the RADEX grids over a range of column densities (or at the optically thick limits) and show that the key contours remain above the DALI densities, or else qualify the conclusion.
  2. [4.3 and Appendix C] The H2CO temperature map is stated to be unconstrained at the peak-flux pixels: for the ortho and para line pairs (5,3-4,3,2 / 1,5-4,4 and 4,2-4,1 / 0,5-4,4), the observed ratios exceed the maximum RADEX grid values, and the peak position of the 5,0,5-4,0,4 transition falls in this unconstrained region (Appendix C). Consequently, the quoted T~150-350 K range and the associated claim that H2CO is sub-thermally excited at z/r~0.17-0.25 are not directly supported at the position of peak H2CO emission. The authors should either quantify the fraction of affected pixels or show that the sub-thermal conclusion still holds for the temperature range allowed by the unconstrained ratios (e.g., up to 500 K).
  3. [5.1 and 5.3.2] The large scatter in the CH3OH rotational diagram is attributed to sub-thermal excitation, but the paper itself, in Section 5.3.2, presents evidence that the CH3OH line fluxes are affected by continuum oversubtraction or continuum blocking (see channel maps, Figure G.1). Such effects would also introduce scatter into the rotational diagram, independent of sub-thermal excitation. The paper does not quantify the expected magnitude of these systematic effects on the derived Trot. The sub-thermal interpretation would be strengthened by a demonstration that the residual scatter, after excluding or correcting pixels affected by the continuum feature, still leads to a similar conclusion.
  4. [5.1 and 6.1] All quantitative conclusions about sub-thermal excitation and the timescales rely on the gas density and temperature structure from the DALI model of Leemker et al. (2023), which is not independently validated for the IRS 48 disk. The thermalization boundary in Figure 5 is compared directly to the model's density profiles; if the actual densities in the CH3OH and H2CO emitting layers were higher by a factor of a few, both species could be thermalized. The paper would be considerably strengthened by a sensitivity analysis that perturbs the model densities (e.g., by 0.3-0.5 dex) and re-evaluates the crossing of the thermalization contours, and by a similar robustness check for the timescale comparisons in Section 6.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Abstract and Section 6.2] The word 'azimtuhal' appears for 'azimuthal' in the abstract and in Section 6.2; please correct the spelling.
  2. [Section 5.3.1] The equation for the dilution factor (DF^-1 = Omega2_source / (Omega2_beam + Omega2_source)) is not numbered; consider adding an equation number for clarity.
  3. [Section 6.1, Eq. (1)] The expression 's 2nsEb,i / pi2mi' for the vibrational frequency has ambiguous parentheses; please write it with explicit brackets, e.g., sqrt(2 n_s E_b,i / (pi^2 m_i)).
  4. [Section 3.2] The notation 'Delta V_line = sqrt(Delta V^2_thermal + Delta V^2_turbulence)' is clear, but consider defining Delta V_thermal explicitly as the thermal line width for each molecule in the text, rather than only giving a typical value.
  5. [Appendix C] In the first paragraph, the phrase 'the temperature derived for these pixels is limited by the upper range of 500 K' could be clearer; for example, 'the ratios exceed the grid maximum, so only a lower limit of about 500 K can be inferred for these pixels.'

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity; the excitation and layering conclusions are model inferences from independent observations, not restatements of inputs.

full rationale

The rotational temperatures for SO2 and CH3OH are derived directly from observed line fluxes via standard rotational-diagram fits; they are the quantities being interpreted, not fitted inputs that force the sub-thermal conclusion. The sub-thermal claim for CH3OH and H2CO is anchored to RADEX non-LTE calculations over independent grids of kinetic temperature and gas density, combined with the DALI density structure (Leemker et al. 2023). That DALI model is self-cited but was calibrated to continuum and CO isotopologue emission, not to the SO2/CH3OH/H2CO lines used here, so it provides external constraints rather than a self-referential input. The H2CO line-ratio temperatures likewise come from observed ratios matched to RADEX grids, with the assumed column density stated and its optical-thickness consequences checked; the sub-thermal inference is a model output, not an assumed premise. The main scientific concern, that the Figure 5 thermalization grids are computed at N=10^12 cm^-2 (optically thin) while Section 5.3 argues for optically thick, beam-diluted emission, is a potential validity or internal-consistency issue for the sub-thermal conclusion, but it does not make the derivation equivalent to its inputs by construction. No equation in the paper reduces a prediction to an input, and no load-bearing claim is justified solely by a same-author citation.

Assumptions & free parameters 4 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on the assumed DALI gas density structure, a fixed line width for optical depth estimates, two assumed densities for the H2CO line-ratio temperature conversion, and literature binding energies and photodissociation rates. No new physical entities are invented. The rotational temperatures are fitted outputs, not free inputs in the derivation of the sub-thermal conclusion.

free parameters (4)
  • Turbulent plus thermal line width Delta_V = 0.2 km/s
    Assumed in Section 3.2 for optical depth and column density calculations; affects whether emission is optically thin or thick and the derived column densities.
  • Gas density n_H2 for H2CO line ratios = 10^7 and 10^8 cm^-3
    Two assumed densities representing atmosphere and midplane are used to convert RADEX line ratios to temperatures in Section 4.3; the temperature result depends on this choice.
  • H2CO column density in RADEX = 10^14 cm^-2
    Fixed column density in the RADEX line-ratio calculations, following van der Marel et al. 2021 (Section 4.3); assumes optically thin emission for this calculation.
  • Alpha viscosity for turbulent mixing timescale = 10^-4, 10^-3, 10^-2
    Three commonly used values scanned for the mixing timescale in Section 6.1; results scale by roughly a factor of 10 over this range.
assumptions (6)
  • domain assumption The DALI thermochemical model of Leemker et al. (2023) correctly predicts the gas density and temperature structure of the IRS 48 dust trap.
    Used to locate the thermalisation boundary in Section 5.1 and to compute all timescales in Section 6.1; if densities are underestimated, the sub-thermal excitation conclusion and vertical heights break down.
  • domain assumption The molecular line emission is optically thin in the rotational diagram analysis.
    Assumed in Sections 3.2 and 4 when deriving rotational temperatures and column densities; the paper later argues H2CO may be optically thick and that CH3OH may also be affected, creating a tension for those species.
  • domain assumption Transitions removed by trial and error and visual inspection are genuinely contaminated and their exclusion does not bias the analysis.
    Stated in Section 3.1 for SO2 transitions where emission could not be confidently distinguished from noise spikes; if misidentified, rotational diagram temperatures could shift.
  • domain assumption The isotopologue ratio H2CO/H2^13CO ~ 4 from Booth et al. (2024) implies the H2CO emission is optically thick.
    Used in Section 5.3.1 to motivate the sliver scenario requiring an emitting radius of about 8 au; the ratio is from a co-authored prior measurement, not rederived here.
  • standard math Standard LTE radiative transfer relations for rotational diagrams.
    Used in Section 3.2 following Goldsmith and Langer (1999); this is the baseline method for extracting rotational temperatures and column densities.
  • domain assumption An anticyclonic vortex from the Rossby Wave Instability is the cause of the dust trap asymmetry.
    Used in Section 5.2.1 to interpret the absence of temperature variations as a constraint on vortex strength; the vortex hypothesis is not tested directly by this paper.

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Characterising the molecular line emission in the asymmetric Oph-IRS 48 dust trap: Temperatures, timescales, and sub-thermal excitation." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/MEMJVOEY

@misc{pith2026241112418,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Characterising the molecular line emission in the asymmetric Oph-IRS 48 dust trap: Temperatures, timescales, and sub-thermal excitation},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/MEMJVOEY}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2411.12418}
}
abstract

The ongoing physical and chemical processes in planet-forming disks set the stage for planet formation. The asymmetric disk around the young star Oph-IRS 48 has one of the most well-characterised chemical inventories, showing molecular emission from a wide variety of species at the dust trap. One of the explanations for the asymmetric structure is dust trapping by a perturbation-induced vortex. We aim to constrain the excitation properties of the molecular species SO$_2$, CH$_3$OH, and H$_2$CO. We further characterise the extent of the molecular emission, through the determination of important physical and chemical timescales at the location of the dust trap. We also investigate whether the potential vortex can influence the observable temperature structure of the gas. Through a pixel-by-pixel rotational diagram analysis, we create rotational temperature and column density maps for SO$_2$ and CH$_3$OH, while temperature maps for H$_2$CO are created using line ratios. We find temperatures of $T\sim$55 K and $T\sim$125 K for SO$_2$ and CH$_3$OH, respectively, while the line ratios point towards temperatures of T$\sim$150-300 K for H$_2$CO. The rotational diagram of CH$_3$OH is dominated by scatter and subsequent non-LTE RADEX calculations suggest that both CH$_3$OH and H$_2$CO must be sub-thermally excited. The temperatures suggest that SO$_2$ comes from a layer deep in the disk, while CH$_3$OH and H$_2$CO originate from a higher layer. While a potential radial gradient is seen in the temperature map of SO$_2$, we do not find any hints of a vortex influencing the temperature structure. The determined turbulent mixing timescale is not able to explain the emitting heights of the molecules, but the photodissociation timescales are able to explain the wider azimuthal extents of SO$_2$ and H$_2$CO compared to CH$_3$OH, where a secondary, gas-phase formation reservoir is required for H$_2$CO.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2411.12418 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Dust continuum (top left; Yang et al. 2023) and moment-0 maps of the 13CO J=3-2 (top centre; Leemker et al. 2023) and J=6-5 (top right; van der Marel et al. 2016), and the SO2 J=64,2-63,3 (bottom left), CH3OH J=13−1-130 (bottom centre), and H2CO J=50,5-40,4 (bottom right) transitions. The white star in the centre indicates the approximate location of the host star, whereas the resolving beam is indicated in the lowe… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Rotational diagrams for SO2 (left) and CH3OH (right) at the peak flux positions of their 64,2-63,3 and 13−1-130 transitions, respectively. The colour bar indicates the value for Aul (×10−4 ) of the transitions [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Temperature (left column), column density (middle column), and maximum optical depth (right column) maps for SO [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_3.png] view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (7 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Line ratios for the different pairs of H2CO transitions. The left panels show the RADEX calculations, with the colour map indicating the various ratios. The white contours indicate the values of 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7, whereas the red contour indicates the disk integrated r…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: RADEX grids for SO2 (top panel), A- and E-type CH3OH (second and third panels), and ortho- and para-H2CO (bottom two panels) showing the percentile difference between the ki￾netic and rotational temperature (∆T), as a measure of ther￾malised transitions. The contours (…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Brightness temperature maps of the dust continuum (left) and the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_6.png]
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Cartoon visualising the expected effect of the vortex on the temperature structure. Hotter gas, due to UV heating, will be counteracted by colder gas being brought in due to the potential vortex motions, which primarily acts in the midplane. This ef￾fect is not observe…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Cartoon visualising our proposed radial vertical emis [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_9.png]
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Optical depth (given in log10-space) grids for a range of beam radii (assuming circular beams) and turbulent line widths (∆V) for SO2 J=64,2-63,3 (at Trot=55 K), CH3OH J=13−1-130 (at Trot=150 K, accounting for the underestimation of the tempera￾ture due to sub-thermal …
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Zoom-in of the model structure of the dust trap region of the IRS 48 disk of the gas density ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_10.png]

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

97 extracted references · 47 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    J., van Dishoeck, E

    Aikawa, Y ., van Zadelhoff, G. J., van Dishoeck, E. F., & Herbst, E. 2002, A&A, 386, 622 Astropy Collaboration, Price-Whelan, A. M., Lim, P. L., et al. 2022, ApJ, 935, 167 Astropy Collaboration, Price-Whelan, A. M., Sip˝ocz, B. M., et al. 2018, AJ, 156, 123 Astropy Collaboration, Robitaille, T. P., Tollerud, E. J., et al. 2013, A&A, 558, A33

    2002

  2. [2]

    L., Cox, R

    Atkinson, R., Baulch, D. L., Cox, R. A., et al. 2006, Atmospheric Chemistry & Physics, 6, 3625 Balança, C., Spielfiedel, A., & Feautrier, N. 2016, MNRAS, 460, 3766

    2006

  3. [3]

    R., Bruderer, S., et al

    Banzatti, A., Meyer, M. R., Bruderer, S., et al. 2012, ApJ, 745, 90

    2012

  4. [4]

    B., Guzmán, V

    Bergner, J. B., Guzmán, V . G., Öberg, K. I., Loomis, R. A., & Pegues, J. 2018, ApJ, 857, 69

    2018

  5. [5]

    Boehler, Y ., Ménard, F., Robert, C. M. T., et al. 2021, A&A, 650, A59

    2021

  6. [6]

    2017, ApJ, 840, 60

    Boehler, Y ., Weaver, E., Isella, A., et al. 2017, ApJ, 840, 60

    2017

  7. [7]

    S., Law, C

    Booth, A. S., Law, C. J., Temmink, M., Leemker, M., & Macías, E. 2023, A&A, 678, A146

    2023

  8. [8]

    An ALMA molecular inventory of warm Herbig Ae disks: II. Abundant complex organics and volatile sulphur in the IRS 48 disk

    Booth, A. S., Temmink, M., van Dishoeck, E. F., et al. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2402.04002

    work page Pith review arXiv 2024

Show all 97 references
  1. [9]

    S., van der Marel, N., Leemker, M., van Dishoeck, E

    Booth, A. S., van der Marel, N., Leemker, M., van Dishoeck, E. F., & Ohashi, S. 2021, A&A, 651, L6

    2021

  2. [10]

    D., Bergin, E

    Bosman, A. D., Bergin, E. A., Loomis, R. A., et al. 2021, ApJS, 257, 15

    2021

  3. [11]

    M., Herczeg, G

    Brown, J. M., Herczeg, G. J., Pontoppidan, K. M., & van Dishoeck, E. F. 2012, ApJ, 744, 116

    2012

  4. [12]

    Brown, W. A. & Bolina, A. S. 2007, MNRAS, 374, 1006

    2007

  5. [13]

    2013, A&A, 559, A46

    Bruderer, S. 2013, A&A, 559, A46

    2013

  6. [14]

    F., & van Kempen, T

    Bruderer, S., van der Marel, N., van Dishoeck, E. F., & van Kempen, T. A. 2014, A&A, 562, A26

    2014

  7. [15]

    F., Doty, S

    Bruderer, S., van Dishoeck, E. F., Doty, S. D., & Herczeg, G. J. 2012, A&A, 541, A91

    2012

  8. [16]

    Brunken, N. G. C., Booth, A. S., Leemker, M., et al. 2022, A&A, 659, A29

    2022

  9. [17]

    T., Fedele, D., Hogerheijde, M

    Carney, M. T., Fedele, D., Hogerheijde, M. R., et al. 2018, A&A, 614, A106

    2018

  10. [18]

    T., Hogerheijde, M

    Carney, M. T., Hogerheijde, M. R., Guzmán, V . V ., et al. 2019, A&A, 623, A124

    2019

  11. [19]

    T., Hogerheijde, M

    Carney, M. T., Hogerheijde, M. R., Loomis, R. A., et al. 2017, A&A, 605, A21

    2017

  12. [20]

    I., Loomis, R

    Cleeves, L. I., Loomis, R. A., Teague, R., et al. 2021, ApJ, 911, 29

    2021

  13. [21]

    Crnkovic-Rubsamen, I., Zhu, Z., & Stone, J. M. 2015, MNRAS, 450, 4285 D’Alessio, P., Cantö, J., Calvet, N., & Lizano, S. 1998, ApJ, 500, 411

    2015

  14. [22]

    2003, A&A, 399, 773

    Dartois, E., Dutrey, A., & Guilloteau, S. 2003, A&A, 399, 773

    2003

  15. [23]

    Facchini, S., Birnstiel, T., Bruderer, S., & van Dishoeck, E. F. 2017, A&A, 605, A16

    2017

  16. [24]

    M., Simon, J

    Flaherty, K., Hughes, A. M., Simon, J. B., et al. 2020, ApJ, 895, 109

    2020

  17. [25]

    M., Simon, J

    Flaherty, K., Hughes, A. M., Simon, J. B., et al. 2024, MNRAS, 532, 363

    2024

  18. [26]

    P., Turner, N

    Flock, M., Nelson, R. P., Turner, N. J., et al. 2017, ApJ, 850, 131

    2017

  19. [27]

    J., Nelson, R

    Flock, M., Turner, N. J., Nelson, R. P., et al. 2020, ApJ, 897, 155

    2020

  20. [28]

    & Preses, J

    Fockenberg, C. & Preses, J. M. 2002, Journal of Physical Chemistry A, 106, 2924

    2002

  21. [29]

    & van der Marel, N

    Francis, L. & van der Marel, N. 2020, ApJ, 892, 111

    2020

  22. [30]

    W., Cuppen, H

    Fuchs, G. W., Cuppen, H. M., Ioppolo, S., et al. 2009, A&A, 505, 629

    2009

  23. [31]

    2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2408.02958 Gaia Collaboration, Brown, A

    Furuya, K. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2408.02958 Gaia Collaboration, Brown, A. G. A., Vallenari, A., et al. 2018, A&A, 616, A1

    2024 arXiv

  24. [32]

    Goldsmith, P. F. & Langer, W. D. 1999, ApJ, 517, 209 Guzmán, V . V ., Öberg, K. I., Carpenter, J., et al. 2018, ApJ, 864, 170

    1999

  25. [33]

    M., & Lin, M.-K

    Hammer, M., Kratter, K. M., & Lin, M.-K. 2017, MNRAS, 466, 3533

    2017

  26. [34]

    & Lin, M.-K

    Hammer, M. & Lin, M.-K. 2023, MNRAS, 525, 123

    2023

  27. [35]

    M., & Pinilla, P

    Hammer, M., Lin, M.-K., Kratter, K. M., & Pinilla, P. 2021, MNRAS, 504, 3963

    2021

  28. [36]

    M., & Lin, M.-K

    Hammer, M., Pinilla, P., Kratter, K. M., & Lin, M.-K. 2019, MNRAS, 482, 3609

    2019

  29. [37]

    R., Millman, K

    Harris, C. R., Millman, K. J., van der Walt, S. J., et al. 2020, Nature, 585, 357

    2020

  30. [38]

    Harsono, D., Bruderer, S., & van Dishoeck, E. F. 2015, A&A, 582, A41

    2015

  31. [39]

    1998, ApJ, 495, 385

    Hartmann, L., Calvet, N., Gullbring, E., & D’Alessio, P. 1998, ApJ, 495, 385

    1998

  32. [40]

    I., Herbst, E., & Leung, C

    Hasegawa, T. I., Herbst, E., & Leung, C. M. 1992, ApJS, 82, 167

    1992

  33. [41]

    N., Bosman, A

    Heays, A. N., Bosman, A. D., & van Dishoeck, E. F. 2017, A&A, 602, A105

    2017

  34. [42]

    & van Dishoeck, E

    Herbst, E. & van Dishoeck, E. F. 2009, ARA&A, 47, 427 Hernández-Vera, C., Guzmán, V . V ., Artur de la Villarmois, E., et al. 2024, ApJ, 967, 68

    2009

  35. [43]

    2018, ApJ, 867, 3

    Huang, P., Isella, A., Li, H., Li, S., & Ji, J. 2018, ApJ, 867, 3

    2018

  36. [44]

    Hunter, J. D. 2007, Computing in Science & Engineering, 9, 90

    2007

  37. [45]

    D., Walsh, C., Booth, A

    Ilee, J. D., Walsh, C., Booth, A. S., et al. 2021, ApJS, 257, 9

    2021

  38. [46]

    M., et al

    Isella, A., Huang, J., Andrews, S. M., et al. 2018, ApJ, 869, L49

    2018

  39. [47]

    Johnstone, D., Boonman, A. M. S., & van Dishoeck, E. F. 2003, A&A, 412, 157

    2003

  40. [48]

    F., et al

    Kama, M., Bruderer, S., van Dishoeck, E. F., et al. 2016, A&A, 592, A83

    2016

  41. [49]

    2019, Chemical Physics Letters, 714, 137

    Kayanuma, M., Shoji, M., Furuya, K., et al. 2019, Chemical Physics Letters, 714, 137

    2019

  42. [50]

    2016, in Positioning and Power in Academic Publishing: Players, Agents and Agendas, ed

    Kluyver, T., Ragan-Kelley, B., Pérez, F., et al. 2016, in Positioning and Power in Academic Publishing: Players, Agents and Agendas, ed. F. Loizides & B. Schmidt, IOS Press, 87 – 90

    2016

  43. [51]

    J., Benisty, M., Facchini, S., et al

    Law, C. J., Benisty, M., Facchini, S., et al. 2024, ApJ, 964, 190

    2024

  44. [52]

    J., Teague, R., Loomis, R

    Law, C. J., Teague, R., Loomis, R. A., et al. 2021, ApJS, 257, 4

    2021

  45. [53]

    J., Teague, R., Öberg, K

    Law, C. J., Teague, R., Öberg, K. I., et al. 2023b, ApJ, 948, 60 Article number, page 14 of 26 Milou Temmink et al.: Temperatures, timescales, and sub-thermal excitation in the Oph-IRS 48 disk Le Gal, R., Öberg, K. I., Loomis, R. A., Pegues, J., & Bergner, J. B. 2019, ApJ, 876...

    2019

  46. [54]

    S., van Dishoeck, E

    Leemker, M., Booth, A. S., van Dishoeck, E. F., et al. 2022, A&A, 663, A23

    2022

  47. [55]

    S., van Dishoeck, E

    Leemker, M., Booth, A. S., van Dishoeck, E. F., et al. 2023, A&A, 673, A7

    2023

  48. [56]

    Leemker, M., van’t Hoff, M. L. R., Trapman, L., et al. 2021, A&A, 646, A3

    2021

  49. [57]

    M., Lovelace, R

    Li, H., Finn, J. M., Lovelace, R. V . E., & Colgate, S. A. 2000, ApJ, 533, 1023

    2000

  50. [58]

    A., Cleeves, L

    Loomis, R. A., Cleeves, L. I., Öberg, K. I., et al. 2018, ApJ, 859, 131

    2018

  51. [59]

    A., Cleeves, L

    Loomis, R. A., Cleeves, L. I., Öberg, K. I., Guzman, V . V ., & Andrews, S. M. 2015, ApJ, 809, L25

    2015

  52. [60]

    Lovelace, R. V . E. & Hohlfeld, R. G. 2013, MNRAS, 429, 529

    2013

  53. [61]

    Lovelace, R. V . E., Li, H., Colgate, S. A., & Nelson, A. F. 1999, ApJ, 513, 805

    1999

  54. [62]

    Lovelace, R. V . E. & Romanova, M. M. 2014, Fluid Dynamics Research, 46, 041401

    2014

  55. [63]

    & Pringle, J

    Lynden-Bell, D. & Pringle, J. E. 1974, MNRAS, 168, 603

    1974

  56. [64]

    2009, A&A, 497, 869

    Lyra, W., Johansen, A., Zsom, A., Klahr, H., & Piskunov, N. 2009, A&A, 497, 869

    2009

  57. [65]

    Meheut, H., Lovelace, R. V . E., & Lai, D. 2013, MNRAS, 430, 1988

    2013

  58. [66]

    2022, ACS Earth and Space Chem- istry, 6, 597 Muñoz-Romero, C

    Minissale, M., Aikawa, Y ., Bergin, E., et al. 2022, ACS Earth and Space Chem- istry, 6, 597 Muñoz-Romero, C. E., Öberg, K. I., Law, C. J., et al. 2023, ApJ, 943, 35 Müller, H. S. P., Thorwirth, S., Roth, D. A., & Winnewisser, G. 2001, A&A, 370, L49

    2022

  59. [67]

    Nazari, P., Tabone, B., & Rosotti, G. P. 2023, A&A, 671, A107

    2023

  60. [68]

    A., Theule, P., Mispelaer, F., et al

    Noble, J. A., Theule, P., Mispelaer, F., et al. 2012, A&A, 543, A5 Öberg, K. I. & Bergin, E. A. 2021, Phys. Rep., 893, 1 Öberg, K. I., Facchini, S., & Anderson, D. E. 2023, ARA&A, 61, 287

    2012

  61. [69]

    2020, ApJ, 900, 81

    Ohashi, S., Kataoka, A., van der Marel, N., et al. 2020, ApJ, 900, 81

    2020

  62. [70]

    Owen, J. E. & Kollmeier, J. A. 2017, MNRAS, 467, 3379 pandas development team, T. 2020, pandas-dev/pandas: Pandas Paneque-Carreño, T., Izquierdo, A. F., Teague, R., et al. 2024, A&A, 684, A174 Paneque-Carreño, T., Miotello, A., van Dishoeck, E. F., et al. 2023, A&A, 669, A126

    2017

  63. [71]

    I., Bergner, J

    Pegues, J., Öberg, K. I., Bergner, J. B., et al. 2020, ApJ, 890, 142

    2020

  64. [72]

    M., Walsh, C., & Cuppen, H

    Penteado, E. M., Walsh, C., & Cuppen, H. M. 2017, ApJ, 844, 71 Pérez, F. & Granger, B. E. 2007, Computing in Science and Engineering, 9, 21

    2017

  65. [73]

    2022, ApJ, 938, 158

    Perrero, J., Enrique-Romero, J., Ferrero, S., et al. 2022, ApJ, 938, 158

    2022

  66. [74]

    2020, A&A, 642, A165

    Rab, C., Kamp, I., Dominik, C., et al. 2020, A&A, 642, A165

    2020

  67. [75]

    & Flower, D

    Rabli, D. & Flower, D. R. 2010, MNRAS, 406, 95

    2010

  68. [76]

    2021, ApJ, 913, 92

    Raettig, N., Lyra, W., & Klahr, H. 2021, ApJ, 913, 92

    2021

  69. [77]

    2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2407.06272 Regály, Z., Kadam, K., & Dullemond, C

    Rampinelli, L., Facchini, S., Leemker, M., et al. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2407.06272 Regály, Z., Kadam, K., & Dullemond, C. P. 2021, MNRAS, 506, 2685

    2024 arXiv

  70. [78]

    P., Ilee, J

    Rosotti, G. P., Ilee, J. D., Facchini, S., et al. 2021, MNRAS, 501, 3427

    2021

  71. [79]

    N., Hogerheijde, M

    Salinas, V . N., Hogerheijde, M. R., Mathews, G. S., et al. 2017, A&A, 606, A125

    2017

  72. [80]

    C., Chuang, K.-J., Lamberts, T., et al

    Santos, J. C., Chuang, K.-J., Lamberts, T., et al. 2022, ApJ, 931, L33

    2022

  73. [81]

    & Golay, M

    Savitzky, A. & Golay, M. J. E. 1964, Analytical Chemistry, 36, 1627 Schöier, F. L., van der Tak, F. F. S., van Dishoeck, E. F., & Black, J. H. 2005, A&A, 432, 369

    1964

  74. [82]

    2006, ApJ, 647, L57

    Semenov, D., Wiebe, D., & Henning, T. 2006, ApJ, 647, L57

    2006

  75. [83]

    M., Hogerheijde, M

    Stapper, L. M., Hogerheijde, M. R., van Dishoeck, E. F., et al. 2024, A&A, 682, A149

    2024

  76. [84]

    S., van der Marel, N., & van Dishoeck, E

    Temmink, M., Booth, A. S., van der Marel, N., & van Dishoeck, E. F. 2023, A&A, 675, A131 Terwisscha van Scheltinga, J., Hogerheijde, M. R., Cleeves, L. I., et al. 2021, ApJ, 906, 111 Terwisscha van Scheltinga, J., Ligterink, N. F. W., Bosman, A. D., Hogerheijde, M. R., & Linna...

    2023

  77. [85]

    F., van Zadelhoff, G

    Thi, W. F., van Zadelhoff, G. J., & van Dishoeck, E. F. 2004, A&A, 425, 955

    2004

  78. [86]

    Tielens, A. G. G. M. & Allamandola, L. J. 1987, in Interstellar Processes, ed. D. J. Hollenbach & J. Thronson, Harley A., V ol. 134, 397

    1987

  79. [87]

    2024, A&A, 686, A120 van der Marel, N., Booth, A

    Urbina, F., Miley, J., Kama, M., & Keyte, L. 2024, A&A, 686, A120 van der Marel, N., Booth, A. S., Leemker, M., van Dishoeck, E. F., & Ohashi, S. 2021, A&A, 651, L5 van der Marel, N., van Dishoeck, E. F., Bruderer, S., et al. 2016, A&A, 585, A58 van der Marel, N., van Dishoeck...

    2024

  80. [88]

    E., et al

    Virtanen, P., Gommers, R., Oliphant, T. E., et al. 2020, Nature Methods, 17, 261

    2020

  81. [89]

    J., & Nomura, H

    Walsh, C., Millar, T. J., & Nomura, H. 2010, ApJ, 722, 1607

    2010

  82. [90]

    & Kouchi, A

    Watanabe, N. & Kouchi, A. 2002, ApJ, 571, L173

    2002

  83. [91]

    2018, ApJ, 853, 113

    Weaver, E., Isella, A., & Boehler, Y . 2018, ApJ, 853, 113

    2018

  84. [92]

    & Faure, A

    Wiesenfeld, L. & Faure, A. 2013, MNRAS, 432, 2573

    2013

  85. [93]

    Woitke, P., Kamp, I., & Thi, W. F. 2009, A&A, 501, 383

    2009

  86. [94]

    Xie, T., Allen, M., & Langer, W. D. 1995, ApJ, 440, 674

    1995

  87. [95]

    2023, ApJ, 948, L2

    Yang, H., Fernández-López, M., Li, Z.-Y ., et al. 2023, ApJ, 948, L2

    2023

  88. [96]

    2024, ApJ, 963, 134

    Yang, H., Fernández-López, M., Li, Z.-Y ., et al. 2024, ApJ, 963, 134

    2024

  89. [97]

    ×0.26", whereas those for H2CO are on the order of 0.48

    Youdin, A. N. & Lithwick, Y . 2007, Icarus, 192, 588 Article number, page 15 of 26 A&A proofs: manuscript no. aanda Appendix A: SO2, CH3OH, and H2CO transitions Table A.1: The detected transitions of SO2 (top part), CH3OH (middle part), and H2CO (bottom part). Molecule Transit...

    2021

Pith tools

Reviewed August 12, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.