Pith. sign in

REVIEW 2 cited by

Planetary albedo is limited by the above-cloud atmosphere: Implications for sub-Neptune climate

T0 review · reviewed 2026-08-16 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗ Review JSON

Pith's one-line read Even a perfectly reflective cloud deck cannot make a planet bright if the atmosphere above the clouds absorbs starlight, and K2-18b's spectrum caps its albedo near 0.2, below the ~0.6 needed for an ocean surface.

arxiv 2504.12030 v2 pith:GKBAGJIJ submitted 2025-04-16 astro-ph.EP

Sean Jordan , Oliver Shorttle , Sascha P. Quanz This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.EP
keywords albedoplanetaryatmosphereabove-cloudexoplanetk2-18bhabitabledemonstrate
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

Planets stay cool by reflecting starlight back into space. The fraction they reflect is called the albedo, and it is often treated as a free knob. A thick, shiny cloud deck could in principle make a planet very reflective so that it stays cool even close to its star. This paper shows there is a hard limit on that knob. The visible part of the atmosphere sits above the clouds, and if that upper layer absorbs starlight, some light is gone before it reaches the cloud. So the planet can never reflect all of it. The authors derive a simple formula: the maximum albedo depends on how much absorbing gas sits above the cloud and how strongly that gas absorbs versus scatters light. They apply this to K2-18b, a sub-Neptune recently claimed to have a hidden liquid ocean. The molecules that cause the detected spectral features, methane and carbon dioxide, absorb starlight above the clouds. That absorption caps K2-18b's albedo at about 0.4 even with a perfect mirror-cloud, and the median value from the retrieved atmosphere is only 0.17 to 0.18. To keep an ocean, K2-18b would need an albedo above about 0.6. The required cloud deck would have to be so high and so bright that it would flatten the transit spectrum, contradicting the observed features. The result suggests K2-18b and most currently observable sub-Neptunes are magma-ocean worlds or gas dwarfs, not ocean planets. The method works for any planet with a measured spectrum, so habitability claims can be checked before future telescopes are built.
Extended reading notes

Core claim

Even with a perfectly reflective grey cloud layer, the planetary albedo is bounded by the absorption and scattering properties of the above-cloud atmosphere (Eq. 22, Section 2.1). For K2-18b, using the retrieval constraints of Madhusudhan et al. (2023), the posterior median planetary albedo is A_pla = 0.17 to 0.18 (Table 2, Figure 6), below the A_pla >= 0.6 to 0.68 threshold required for a liquid water ocean under a 1 bar H2 atmosphere (Innes et al. 2023; Leconte et al. 2024). The paper states: 'all calculated planetary albedos fall below the threshold required to maintain a water ocean on K2-18b under even only 1 bar of H2' (Section 5). If true, K2-18b is not potentially habitable and is likely a magma-ocean or gas-dwarf world.

Load-bearing premise

The application to K2-18b assumes that the terminator-region atmosphere observed in transmission is representative of the dayside hemisphere that determines the Bond albedo, specifically that the retrieved cloud-top pressure and absorber abundances hold over the full dayside (acknowledged in Section 4.1: 'the albedo constraint requires assuming that the day-side atmosphere is well represented by the terminator region'). If instead the dayside hosts a bright, high cloud deck that is absent or much deeper at the terminator, the planet could reach albedos above the computed bound. The companion assumption of 100% cloud coverage (Section 3.3) is conservative in the opposite direction, but it does not rescue the extrapolation if the dayside cloud is higher than the terminator cloud.

Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Signed reviews

No signed human review yet.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Assumptions & free parameters 7 free parameters · 7 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on standard radiative-transfer approximations and on several domain assumptions about K2-18b's atmosphere, most importantly that terminator observations represent the dayside and that the Madhusudhan et al. (2023) retrieval is accurate. The free parameters are primarily the prior on cloud albedo and the retrieved atmospheric parameters from the literature. No new physical entities are introduced.

free parameters (7)
  • Cloud albedo A_cloud = sampled uniformly in [0,1] or [0.8,1]
    The cloud's reflectivity is not constrained by the transmission spectrum; the posterior on A_pla is explicitly marginalized over this prior, so the median values (0.17-0.18) depend on it.
  • Retrieved temperature T = 257 (+127/-74) K (no offset)
    Retrieved from Madhusudhan et al. (2023); affects gas absorption cross sections. The paper samples from a Gaussian approximation to the reported asymmetric uncertainties.
  • Cloud-top pressure P_cloud = log P_cloud = -0.55 (+0.99/-1.20) bar
    Sets the above-cloud optical depth tau_infinity; deeper cloud tops produce lower maximum albedo. This is central to the bound.
  • CH4 mixing ratio = log CH4 = -2.04 (+0.61/-0.72)
    Primary absorber above the cloud in the M-dwarf spectrum; higher CH4 lowers the albedo limit.
  • CO2 mixing ratio = log CO2 = -1.75 (+0.45/-1.03)
    Additional absorber; Schmidt et al. (2025) report no CO2, which would raise the limit compared to the main calculation.
  • Trace H2O abundance = log H2O < -3.21
    Used in the sensitivity test (Appendix A) at the 2-sigma non-detection limit; including it lowers the median A_pla to 0.13-0.14.
  • Enhanced haze scaling and power-law slope = scaling 10^7.31-10^8.21, lambda^-11.11 to -11.67
    Ad hoc parametrization from Madhusudhan et al. (2023), used for one of the two albedo models; the paper itself notes it is unclear what particles would achieve this scattering.
assumptions (7)
  • standard math The two-stream (delta-Eddington-type) closure adequately captures net scattering and absorption for computing planetary albedo.
    The analytic derivation (Eqs. 1-22) and the numerical model (Appendix B) both rely on two-stream-type closures, which are approximate but standard in climate and exoplanet radiative transfer.
  • domain assumption The terminator-region atmosphere is representative of the dayside hemisphere that determines the Bond albedo.
    Section 4.1 states the albedo constraint 'requires assuming that the day-side atmosphere is well represented by the terminator region'. This is load-bearing for the K2-18b application and is acknowledged but not tested.
  • domain assumption The dayside cloud coverage fraction is 1.0.
    Section 3.3 assumes full cloud coverage so that the derived albedos remain conservative upper limits; real coverage could be lower.
  • domain assumption The retrieved atmospheric parameters of Madhusudhan et al. (2023) accurately describe K2-18b's observable atmosphere.
    The paper uses T, P_cloud, CH4, and CO2 from that retrieval (Table 1) as inputs, although Schmidt et al. (2025) reanalysis finds different abundances and no CO2.
  • domain assumption A perfectly reflective (A_cloud = 1) grey cloud layer provides the upper limit on planetary albedo.
    Used to derive the analytic upper limit in Section 2.1 (Eq. 17) and as the extreme case in the numerical model; real clouds have lower albedo, so this is a conservative bound.
  • domain assumption The stellar SED of GJ436 (M3.5) is an adequate proxy for K2-18 (M2.8, Teff ~3457 K).
    Section 2.2 uses the GJ436 SED for weighting w0 and computing albedo, following Cooke & Madhusudhan (2024). Small differences in the SED could shift the weighted albedo slightly.
  • domain assumption The enhanced non-Rayleigh haze parametrization from Madhusudhan et al. (2023) is a physically plausible scenario.
    Section 3.2 notes 'it is unclear what particles would achieve this degree of enhanced scattering'; the paper includes it as an end-member scenario despite this caveat.

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Planetary albedo is limited by the above-cloud atmosphere: Implications for sub-Neptune climate." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/GKBAGJIJ

@misc{pith2026250412030,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Planetary albedo is limited by the above-cloud atmosphere: Implications for sub-Neptune climate},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/GKBAGJIJ}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2504.12030}
}
read the original abstract

Energy limits that delineate the `habitable zone' for exoplanets depend on a given exoplanet's net planetary albedo (or `Bond albedo'). We here demonstrate that the planetary albedo of an observed exoplanet is limited by the above-cloud atmosphere - the region of the atmosphere that is probed in remote observation. We derive an analytic model to explore how the maximum planetary albedo depends on the above-cloud optical depth and scattering versus absorbing properties, even in the limit of a perfectly reflective grey cloud layer. We apply this framework to sub-Neptune K2-18b, for which a high planetary albedo has recently been invoked to argue for the possibility of maintaining a liquid water ocean surface, despite K2-18b receiving an energy flux from its host star that places it inside of its estimated `habitable zone' inner edge. We use a numerical multiple-scattering line-by-line radiative transfer model to retrieve the albedo of K2-18b based on the observational constraints from the above-cloud atmosphere. Our results demonstrate that K2-18b's observed transmission spectrum already restricts its possible planetary albedo to values below the threshold required to be potentially habitable, with the data favouring a median planetary albedo of 0.17-0.18. Our results thus reveal that currently characteriseable sub-Neptunes are likely to be magma-ocean or gas-dwarf worlds. The methods that we present are generally applicable to constrain the planetary albedo of any exoplanet with measurements of its observable atmosphere, enabling the quantification of potential exoplanet habitability with current observational capabilities.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2504.12030 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. An observed transmission spectrum is linked to the planetary albedo through the optical depth, τ∞, from the cloud top to the top of the atmosphere, and the scattering albedo, w0 = τsca/(τabs + τsca), of the above-cloud atmosphere. High-altitude clouds/hazes that truncate observations and lead to flat transmission spectra can achieve high planetary albedos because there is little opportunity for stellar energy to be … view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Analytic formulation of planetary albedo of a perfectly reflecting cloud layer resting at optical-depth τ∞ from the top of the atmosphere, as a function of above-cloud scattering albedo w0 (equation 22), with zenith angle cosζ ∼ 2 3 . Inset: maximum planetary albedo as a function of w0 on contours of constant τ . In the case of K2-18b, the retrievals from Schmidt et al. (2025) found no evidence for clouds or hazes i… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Wavelength dependent scattering albedo w0 (top), and transmission spectra (bottom), for K2-18b with and without the enhanced non-Rayleigh haze parametrisation from Madhusudhan et al. (2023). Observational data points obtained with K2, HST, Spitzer, and JWST are shown in grey (bottom) (Benneke et al. 2019; Madhusudhan et al. 2023). of Runaway Greenhouse (Apla ≳ 0.6) if the above-cloud optical depth were below unity (… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (6 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The planetary albedo for a H2 atmosphere containing CH4, CO2, or H2O at abundances ranging from 1 ppm to 10 %, assuming a perfectly reflecting cloud top at pressure Pcloud (bar) (top). The limit imposed on Apla by above-cloud absorption depends on the absorption cross …
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: (Top) Calculated albedo of K2-18b for the median values of Pcloud, T, CH4, and CO2, for three different instrumental offset cases ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_5.png]
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Posterior distribution of planetary albedo Apla marginalising over possible cloud albedo (Ac ϵ [0, 1]) and the reported error ranges for Pcloud, T, CH4, and CO2, for three different instrumental offset cases ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_6.png]
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Posterior distribution of planetary albedo Apla marginalising over the reported error ranges for Pcloud, T, CH4, and CO2, for very high cloud albedos (Ac ϵ [0.8, 1.0], top panel). The median planetary albedos range Apla ∼ 0.31 – 0.35 for the nominal case (middle panel)…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Posterior distribution of planetary albedo Apla marginalising over possible cloud albedo (Ac ϵ [0, 1]) and the reported error ranges for Pcloud, T, CH4, and CO2, for three different instrumental offset cases, including H2O at the 2σ non-detection limit ( [PITH_FULL_IM…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Posterior distribution of planetary albedo Apla marginalising over the reported error ranges for Pcloud, T, CH4, and CO2, for very high cloud albedos (Ac ϵ [0.8, 1.0], top panel), including H2O at the 2σ non-detection limit ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p020_9.png]

Discussion (0). Continue with ORCID to comment.

Forward citations

Cited by 2 Pith papers

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score. Full citation record

  1. A Comprehensive Reanalysis of K2-18 b's JWST NIRISS+NIRSpec Transmission Spectrum

    astro-ph.EP 2025-01 conditional novelty 7.0 of 10

    A multi-method reanalysis of K2-18 b's JWST spectrum confirms methane but finds no robust carbon dioxide or dimethyl sulfide, favoring an oxygen-poor mini-Neptune over a hycean ocean world.

  2. A water-rich interior in the temperate sub-Neptune K2-18 b revealed by JWST

    astro-ph.EP 2025-07 conditional novelty 6.0 of 10

    New JWST data robustly detect CH4 and CO2 in K2-18 b's atmosphere, indicating a water-rich interior; DMS, CH3SH, and N2O remain marginal, and abiotic organosulfur chemistry is a viable explanation.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

58 extracted references · 7 canonical work pages · cited by 2 Pith papers

  1. [1]

    , " * write output.state after.block = add.period write newline

    ENTRY address archivePrefix author booktitle chapter doi edition editor eprint howpublished institution journal key month number organization pages publisher school series title misctitle type volume year version url label extra.label sort.label short.list INTEGERS output.state before.all mid.sentence after.sentence after.block FUNCTION init.state.consts ...

  2. [2]

    write newline

    " write newline "" before.all 'output.state := FUNCTION format.url url empty "" new.block "" url * "" * if FUNCTION format.eprint eprint empty "" archivePrefix empty "" archivePrefix "arXiv" = new.block " " eprint * " " * new.block " " eprint * " " * if if if FUNCTION format.doi doi empty "" " " doi * " " * if FUNCTION format.pid doi empty eprint empty ur...

  3. [3]

    r\ L.ꞓkF & &QCZ7 CǺ? >w cױT T d\Ә!9^T1fx4 O.0&W ɱlxr ;s/٭m cv ldWu + r1xHj_ j [z c> V¬ Yf(J#ŲO

    thebibliography [1] 20pt to REFERENCES 6pt =0pt -12pt 10pt plus 3pt =0pt =0pt =1pt plus 1pt =0pt =0pt -12pt =13pt plus 1pt =20pt =13pt plus 1pt \@M =10000 =-1.0em =0pt =0pt 0pt =0pt =1.0em @enumiv\@empty 10000 10000 `\.\@m \@noitemerr \@latex@warning Empty `thebibliography' environment \@ifnextchar \@reference \@latexerr Missing key on reference command E...

    2021

  4. [4]

    Bates , D. R. 1984, , 32, 785, 10.1016/0032-0633(84)90102-8

    doi:10.1016/0032-0633(84)90102-8 1984

  5. [5]

    2017, , 834, 187, 10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/187

    Benneke , B., Werner , M., Petigura , E., et al. 2017, , 834, 187, 10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/187

    doi:10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/187 2017

  6. [6]

    2019, , 887, L14, 10.3847/2041-8213/ab59dc

    Benneke , B., Wong , I., Piaulet , C., et al. 2019, , 887, L14, 10.3847/2041-8213/ab59dc

    doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab59dc 2019

  7. [7]

    2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2403.03325, 10.48550/arXiv.2403.03325

    Benneke , B., Roy , P.-A., Coulombe , L.-P., et al. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2403.03325, 10.48550/arXiv.2403.03325

    arXiv doi:10.48550/arxiv.2403.03325 2024

  8. [8]

    2020, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2011.10424, 10.48550/arXiv.2011.10424

    B \'e zard , B., Charnay , B., & Blain , D. 2020, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2011.10424, 10.48550/arXiv.2011.10424

    arXiv doi:10.48550/arxiv.2011.10424 2020

Show all 58 references
  1. [9]

    1973, Optics Communications, 9, 432, 10.1016/0030-4018(73)90289-7

    Bideau-Mehu , A., Guern , Y., Abjean , R., & Johannin-Gilles , A. 1973, Optics Communications, 9, 432, 10.1016/0030-4018(73)90289-7

    1973 doi

  2. [10]

    Briegleb , B. P. 1992, , 97, 7603, 10.1029/92JD00291

    1992 doi

  3. [11]

    A., & Charbonneau , D

    Burrows , A., Hubeny , I., Budaj , J., Knutson , H. A., & Charbonneau , D. 2007, , 668, L171, 10.1086/522834

    2007 doi

  4. [12]

    2017, , 608, A35, 10.1051/0004-6361/201731558

    Cloutier , R., Astudillo-Defru , N., Doyon , R., et al. 2017, , 608, A35, 10.1051/0004-6361/201731558

    2017 doi

  5. [13]

    J., & Madhusudhan , N

    Cooke , G. J., & Madhusudhan , N. 2024, , 977, 209, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad8cda

    2024 doi

  6. [14]

    N., & Pilachowski , C

    Cox , A. N., & Pilachowski , C. A. 2000, Physics Today, 53, 77, 10.1063/1.1325201

    2000 doi

  7. [15]

    France , K., Loyd , R. O. P., Youngblood , A., et al. 2016, , 820, 89, 10.3847/0004-637X/820/2/89

    2016 doi

  8. [16]

    E., Rothman , L

    Gordon , I. E., Rothman , L. S., Hargreaves , R. J., et al. 2022, , 277, 107949, 10.1016/j.jqsrt.2021.107949

    2022

  9. [17]

    2010, , 520, A27, 10.1051/0004-6361/200913396

    Guillot , T. 2010, , 520, A27, 10.1051/0004-6361/200913396

    2010 doi

  10. [18]

    Helled , R., & Fortney , J. J. 2020, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A, 378, 20190474, 10.1098/rsta.2019.0474

    2020

  11. [19]

    1990, Molecular Physics, 69, 803, 10.1080/00268979000100611

    Hohm , U., & Kerl , K. 1990, Molecular Physics, 69, 803, 10.1080/00268979000100611

    1990 doi

  12. [20]

    2024, , 683, L2, 10.1051/0004-6361/202348238

    Holmberg , M., & Madhusudhan , N. 2024, , 683, L2, 10.1051/0004-6361/202348238

    2024 doi

  13. [21]

    2021, , 921, L8, 10.3847/2041-8213/ac1f92

    Hu , R., Damiano , M., Scheucher , M., et al. 2021, , 921, L8, 10.3847/2041-8213/ac1f92

    2021 doi

  14. [22]

    Innes , H., Tsai , S.-M., & Pierrehumbert , R. T. 2023, , 953, 168, 10.3847/1538-4357/ace346

    2023 doi

  15. [23]

    Jordan , S., Shorttle , O., & Rimmer , P. B. 2025, Science Advances, 11, eadp8105, 10.1126/sciadv.adp8105

    2025 doi

  16. [24]

    H., Wiscombe , W

    Joseph , J. H., Wiscombe , W. J., & Weinman , J. A. 1976, Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 33, 2452, 10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033<2452:TDEAFR>2.0.CO;2

    1976 doi

  17. [25]

    F., Whitmire , D

    Kasting , J. F., Whitmire , D. P., & Reynolds , R. T. 1993, , 101, 108, 10.1006/icar.1993.1010

    1993

  18. [26]

    Kempton , E. M. R., Zhang , M., Bean , J. L., et al. 2023, , 620, 67, 10.1038/s41586-023-06159-5

    2023 doi

  19. [27]

    S., Fegley , Jr., B., Schaefer , L., & Ford , E

    Kite , E. S., Fegley , Jr., B., Schaefer , L., & Ford , E. B. 2019, , 887, L33, 10.3847/2041-8213/ab59d9

    2019 doi

  20. [28]

    L., D \'e sert , J.-M., et al

    Kreidberg , L., Bean , J. L., D \'e sert , J.-M., et al. 2014, , 505, 69, 10.1038/nature12888

    2014 doi

  21. [29]

    2024, , 686, A131, 10.1051/0004-6361/202348928

    Leconte , J., Spiga , A., Cl \'e ment , N., et al. 2024, , 686, A131, 10.1051/0004-6361/202348928

    2024 doi

  22. [30]

    W., Angerhausen , D., & Hansen , J

    Leung , M., Tsai , S.-M., Schwieterman , E. W., Angerhausen , D., & Hansen , J. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2502.13856, 10.48550/arXiv.2502.13856

    2025 doi arXiv

  23. [31]

    2003, , 591, 1220, 10.1086/375492

    Lodders , K. 2003, , 591, 1220, 10.1086/375492

    2003 doi

  24. [32]

    Loyd , R. O. P., France , K., Youngblood , A., et al. 2016, , 824, 102, 10.3847/0004-637X/824/2/102

    2016 doi

  25. [33]

    2015, Astrobiology, 15, 119, 10.1089/ast.2014.1231

    Luger , R., & Barnes , R. 2015, Astrobiology, 15, 119, 10.1089/ast.2014.1231

    2015

  26. [34]

    2022, Science, 377, 1211, 10.1126/science.abl7164

    Luque , R., & Pall \'e , E. 2022, Science, 377, 1211, 10.1126/science.abl7164

    2022 doi

  27. [35]

    C., Welbanks , L., Piette , A

    Madhusudhan , N., Nixon , M. C., Welbanks , L., Piette , A. A. A., & Booth , R. A. 2020, , 891, L7, 10.3847/2041-8213/ab7229

    2020 doi

  28. [36]

    Madhusudhan , N., Piette , A. A. A., & Constantinou , S. 2021, , 918, 1, 10.3847/1538-4357/abfd9c

    2021 doi

  29. [37]

    2023, , 956, L13, 10.3847/2041-8213/acf577

    Madhusudhan , N., Sarkar , S., Constantinou , S., et al. 2023, , 956, L13, 10.3847/2041-8213/acf577

    2023 doi

  30. [38]

    A., Sasselov , D., Stewart , S

    Marcus , R. A., Sasselov , D., Stewart , S. T., & Hernquist , L. 2010, , 719, L45, 10.1088/2041-8205/719/1/L45

    2010 doi

  31. [39]

    M., Read , P

    Mendon c a , J. M., Read , P. L., Wilson , C. F., & Lee , C. 2015, , 105, 80, 10.1016/j.pss.2014.11.008

    2015 doi

  32. [40]

    T., Morton , T

    Montet , B. T., Morton , T. D., Foreman-Mackey , D., et al. 2015, , 809, 25, 10.1088/0004-637X/809/1/25

    2015 doi

  33. [41]

    C., Piette , A

    Nixon , M. C., Piette , A. A. A., Kempton , E. M. R., et al. 2024, , 970, L28, 10.3847/2041-8213/ad615b

    2024 doi

  34. [42]

    2024, , 977, 188, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad8e67

    Ohno , K. 2024, , 977, 188, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad8e67

    2024 doi

  35. [43]

    M., Ansdell, M., Crooke, J., et al

    O'Meara, J. M., Ansdell, M., Crooke, J., et al. 2024, in Space Telescopes and Instrumentation 2024: Optical, Infrared, and Millimeter Wave, ed. L. E. Coyle, S. Matsuura, & M. D. Perrin, Vol. 13092, International Society for Optics and Photonics (SPIE), 130921M, 10.1117/12.3019387

    2024 doi

  36. [44]

    2024, , 974, L10, 10.3847/2041-8213/ad6f00

    Piaulet-Ghorayeb , C., Benneke , B., Radica , M., et al. 2024, , 974, L10, 10.3847/2041-8213/ad6f00

    2024 doi

  37. [45]

    Pierrehumbert , R. T. 2010, Principles of Planetary Climate

    2010

  38. [46]

    P., Ottiger , M., Fontanet , E., et al

    Quanz , S. P., Ottiger , M., Fontanet , E., et al. 2022, , 664, A21, 10.1051/0004-6361/202140366

    2022 doi

  39. [47]

    E., Pica-Ciamarra , L., Holmberg , M., et al

    Rigby , F. E., Pica-Ciamarra , L., Holmberg , M., et al. 2024, , 975, 101, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad6c38

    2024 doi

  40. [48]

    P., MacDonald , R

    Schmidt , S. P., MacDonald , R. J., Tsai , S.-M., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2501.18477, 10.48550/arXiv.2501.18477

    2025 doi arXiv

  41. [49]

    Shorttle , O., Jordan , S., Nicholls , H., Lichtenberg , T., & Bower , D. J. 2024, , 962, L8, 10.3847/2041-8213/ad206e

    2024 doi

  42. [50]

    2005, , 92, 293, 10.1016/j.jqsrt.2004.07.025

    Sneep , M., & Ubachs , W. 2005, , 92, 293, 10.1016/j.jqsrt.2004.07.025

    2005 doi

  43. [51]

    2021, , 922, L27, 10.3847/2041-8213/ac399a

    Tsai , S.-M., Innes , H., Lichtenberg , T., et al. 2021, , 922, L27, 10.3847/2041-8213/ac399a

    2021 doi

  44. [52]

    P., Tinetti , G., Tennyson , J., & Yurchenko , S

    Tsiaras , A., Waldmann , I. P., Tinetti , G., Tennyson , J., & Yurchenko , S. N. 2019, Nature Astronomy, 3, 1086, 10.1038/s41550-019-0878-9

    2019 doi

  45. [53]

    E., Grimm , S

    Werlen , A., Dorn , C., Schlichting , H. E., Grimm , S. L., & Young , E. D. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2504.20450, 10.48550/arXiv.2504.20450

    2025 doi arXiv

  46. [54]

    F., Batalha , N

    Wogan , N. F., Batalha , N. E., Zahnle , K. J., et al. 2024, , 963, L7, 10.3847/2041-8213/ad2616

    2024 doi

  47. [55]

    2017, , 44, 665, 10.1002/2016GL071766

    Wordsworth , R., Kalugina , Y., Lokshtanov , S., et al. 2017, , 44, 665, 10.1002/2016GL071766

    2017 doi

  48. [56]

    H., Hurowitz , J., et al

    Wordsworth , R., Knoll , A. H., Hurowitz , J., et al. 2021, Nature Geoscience, 14, 127, 10.1038/s41561-021-00701-8

    2021 doi

  49. [57]

    Youngblood , A., France , K., Loyd , R. O. P., et al. 2016, , 824, 101, 10.3847/0004-637X/824/2/101

    2016 doi

  50. [58]

    I., Fortney , J

    Yu , X., Moses , J. I., Fortney , J. J., & Zhang , X. 2021, , 914, 38, 10.3847/1538-4357/abfdc7

    2021 doi

Pith tools

Reviewed August 16, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.