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REVIEW 3 major objections 4 minor 47 references

Flow-dependent tagging of $^{214}$Pb decays in the LZ dark matter detector

T0 review · 3 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-05 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read LZ tracks single radon-chain atoms through its liquid xenon to tag 63% of 214Pb decays — the detector's leading low-energy background — for a 9% exposure cost.

desk verdict Directly measured 63% 214Pb tagging efficiency holds up; the charged-ion transport model extrapolation to 81 minutes is the main soft spot, but the paper is honest and deserves serious review. read the letter →

arxiv 2508.19117 v1 pith:BGCUCMGV submitted 2025-08-26 physics.ins-det hep-ex

J. Aalbers , D.S. Akerib , A.K. Al Musalhi , F. Alder , C.S. Amarasinghe , A. Ames , T.J. Anderson , N. Angelides
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H.M. Araújo J.E. Armstrong M. Arthurs A. Baker S. Balashov J. Bang J.W. Bargemann E.E. Barillier K. Beattie T. Benson A. Bhatti T.P. Biesiadzinski H.J. Birch E. Bishop G.M. Blockinger B. Boxer C.A.J. Brew P. Brás S. Burdin M.C. Carmona-Benitez M. Carter A. Chawla H. Chen Y.T. Chin N.I. Chott M.V. Converse R. Coronel A. Cottle G. Cox D. Curran C.E. Dahl I. Darlington S. Dave A. David J. Delgaudio S. Dey L. de Viveiros L. Di Felice C. Ding J.E.Y. Dobson E. Druszkiewicz S. Dubey C.L. Dunbar S.R. Eriksen A. Fan N.M. Fearon N. Fieldhouse S. Fiorucci H. Flaecher E.D. Fraser T.M.A. Fruth R.J. Gaitskell A. Geffre J. Genovesi C. Ghag A. Ghosh R. Gibbons S. Gokhale J. Green M.G.D.van der Grinten J.J. Haiston C.R. Hall T. Hall S. Han E. Hartigan-O'Connor S.J. Haselschwardt M.A. Hernandez S.A. Hertel G.J. Homenides M. Horn D.Q. Huang D. Hunt E. Jacquet R.S. James M.K. K A.C. Kaboth A.C. Kamaha D. Khaitan A. Khazov J. Kim Y.D. Kim J. Kingston R. Kirk D. Kodroff E.V. Korolkova H. Kraus S. Kravitz L. Kreczko V.A. Kudryavtsev C. Lawes D.S. Leonard K.T. Lesko C. Levy J. Lin A. Lindote W.H. Lippincott J. Long M.I. Lopes W. Lorenzon C. Lu S. Luitz P.A. Majewski A. Manalaysay R.L. Mannino C. Maupin M.E. McCarthy G. McDowell D.N. McKinsey J. McLaughlin J.B. Mclaughlin R. McMonigle B. Mitra E. Mizrachi M.E. Monzani E. Morrison B.J. Mount M. Murdy A.St.J. Murphy H.N. Nelson F. Neves A. Nguyen C.L. O'Brien I. Olcina K.C. Oliver-Mallory J. Orpwood K.Y Oyulmaz K.J. Palladino J. Palmer N.J. Pannifer N. Parveen S.J. Patton B. Penning G. Pereira E. Perry T. Pershing A. Piepke S.S. Poudel Y. Qie J. Reichenbacher C.A. Rhyne G.R.C. Rischbieter E. Ritchey H.S. Riyat R. Rosero T. Rushton D. Rynders D. Santone A.B.M.R. Sazzad R.W. Schnee G. Sehr B. Shafer S. Shaw K. Shi T. Shutt J.J. Silk C. Silva G. Sinev J. Siniscalco A.M. Slivar R. Smith V.N. Solovov P. Sorensen J. Soria I. Stancu A. Stevens T.J. Sumner A. Swain M. Szydagis D.R. Tiedt M. Timalsina Z. Tong D.R. Tovey J. Tranter M. Trask M. Tripathi A. Usón A.C. Vaitkus O. Valentino V. Velan A. Wang J.J. Wang Y. Wang L. Weeldreyer T.J. Whitis K. Wild M. Williams W.J. Wisniewski L. Wolf F.L.H. Wolfs S. Woodford D. Woodward C.J. Wright Q. Xia J. Xu Y. Xu M. Yeh D. Yeum W. Zha H. Zhang T. Zhang
This is my paper · ORCID
classification physics.ins-dethep-ex
keywords liquidxenonTPC214PbtaggingradonchaindecaypairsflowmappingiondriftmodeldarkmatterdirectdetectionbackgroundrejectionLZexperiment
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper claims that the slow, stable circulation of liquid xenon inside the LZ dark matter detector can be mapped precisely enough to predict where individual radioactive atoms will be minutes later. Pairs of sequential alpha decays (222Rn then 218Po) act as tracers: each pair records how far a daughter atom drifted in the liquid between its birth and its own decay. From roughly one tracer pair per 27 cubic centimeters, LZ builds a flow map plus an ion-drift model, then projects each 214Pb atom's path forward for up to 81 minutes. Temporally evolving selection volumes around those projected paths catch 63% ± 6% (stat) ± 7% (sys) of 214Pb beta decays — the leading low-energy electron-recoil background in the WIMP search — while discarding only 9.0% of exposure. The tag was already used in LZ's 2024 WIMP search, and the tagged events also form a calibration sample collected simultaneously with science data.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing objects are the flow map, the ion-drift model, and the evolving selection volume. The flow map is a vector field interpolated from neutral 222Rn–218Po pair displacements using a 10-cm Gaussian kernel over the 11 nearest sample vectors, integrated forward with an adaptive Runge-Kutta streamline integrator; the ion-drift model, Eq. (4), gives the instantaneous drift velocity V+Z = VL + (VI − VL)(1 − ΔT/λ)exp(−ΔT/λ), with VI = −0.55 mm/s, VL = −0.38 mm/s, λ = 115 s, fitted to the charged 222Rn–218Po band. The tag volume itself is a cylinder around each projected streamline whose radii grow with time as ΔXYs < g + h(1 − exp(−ΔT/κ)) and |ΔZs| < i + j(1 − exp(−ΔT/λ)), with paramet

What would settle it

Measure the drift of 214Pb+ and 214Bi+ directly: the semi-charged 218Po–214BiPo pairs (where one of the two intervening ions is neutral) form a population whose vertical displacement at late times (ΔT > 40 min) depends on the true drift parameters. If their late-time vertical deviations fall where the 218Po+-based extrapolation predicts, the charged-branch assumption holds; if they systematically deviate — or if the 75% minus 63% efficiency gap persists once species-specific drift is incorporated — the transport model, not the neutralization or branching assumptions, is the limiting piece.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that 214Pb beta decays can be individually anticipated and rejected, not just statistically subtracted. The demonstration rests on a transport model: 222Rn–218Po decay pairs provide displacement vectors for both neutral atoms (bulk flow) and singly charged ions (flow plus electric-field drift), and these vectors are interpolated into a three-dimensional flow field with streamlines projected forward in time. A charged-ion drift model, fitted to the 218Po+ population with initial drift velocity −0.55 mm/s relaxing to −0.38 mm/s on a 115-s time constant, extends the trajectories of charged progeny; selection windows around both neutral and charged streamlines, tuned on pure

Load-bearing premise

The tag's charged branch assumes that an ion-drift model fitted to 218Po+ ions over the first 15 minutes — with one species-independent neutralization time of 49 minutes — correctly predicts where 214Pb+ and 214Bi+ ions go for up to 81 minutes.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • The leading low-energy electron-recoil background in LZ's WIMP search is reduced by 63% at 9.0% exposure cost; the voxelized version of the tag was already deployed in the 2024 WIMP search with ϵtot as a floating parameter in the background model.
  • Tagged 214Pb events form the first low-energy ER calibration dataset taken concurrently with science data; its spread around the predicted beta-decay band matches the LZ-tuned response model (KS p-value 0.319) and was used to confirm the origin of reduced-charge-yield 124Xe double-electron-capture events.
  • The same transport model pairs 218Po with its granddaughter 214Po (via 214BiPo events) out to 81 minutes, providing a pure, high-statistics validation channel for any extension of the tag.
  • The 12-point gap between modeled (75%) and observed (63%) tag efficiency is attributed to extrapolating the 218Po+-only drift calibration to 214Pb+ and 214Bi+; the paper identifies backward-projected streamlines from 214BiPo events as a concrete upgrade that would also recover neutralized-ion paths.
  • Separately from the tag, the paper shows the detector's mixing state itself is a background control: the Minimal Mixing state reduces 218Po activity in the 5.5-tonne fiducial volume by nearly 20% relative to the Low Mixing state used for science data.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • I read the method as transferable: any liquid xenon (or other liquid noble) detector with slow, stable circulation and radon low enough that decay pairs are unambiguous could build the same pair-based flow map; the High Mixing state described here, where flow speeds approach the 0.4 mm/s ion drift speed and the neutral/charged pair populations blur, is the natural failure boundary.
  • A direct measurement of 214Pb+ and 214Bi+ drift velocities — for instance from the semi-charged 218Po–214BiPo population that falls between the neutral and charged bands — would test whether the 75-to-63% efficiency gap is an ion-drift model error; if it is, species-specific drift parameters should push the tag toward the modeled 75%.
  • The concurrent-calibration property may end up mattering beyond WIMP searches: every tagged 214Pb decay is a known low-energy beta in science data, so any electron-recoil-band analysis could use the tag as a live detector-response check without interrupting data taking for source injections.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 4 minor

Summary. The paper presents a method for tagging 214Pb beta decays in the LZ liquid-xenon TPC by exploiting the low 222Rn activity and stable, slow liquid flow in the detector. Sequential alpha decays (222Rn–218Po) are paired to construct a flow map and a charged-ion drift model; the resulting transport model is used to define time-evolving volume selections around predicted 214Pb trajectories. Applying these volumes costs 9.0% of exposure and removes 63% ± 6%(stat) ± 7%(sys) of the 214Pb ground-state decays in the 5.5 t fiducial volume, as measured directly by re-fitting the 18–75 keVee spectrum after removing tagged events. The tag has already been used in LZ's 2024 WIMP search, and the paper also demonstrates a concurrent low-energy ER calibration sample from tagged 214Pb decays. The central uncertainty in the method is the extrapolation of the charged-ion drift model, fitted to 218Po+ data out to ~15 min, to 214Pb+ and 214Bi+ trajectories out to 81 min; the authors explicitly identify this as the likely cause of the gap between the modeled (75%) and observed (63%) tagging efficiency.

Significance. If the result holds, this is an important advance for rare-event searches in liquid xenon: 214Pb is the leading low-energy ER background in LZ, and a demonstrated 63% tagging efficiency at 9% exposure cost is a significant background-mitigation tool. The paper's strongest point is that the headline efficiency is a direct spectral measurement (Section V.B.1), not a prediction from the transport model, so the central number does not collapse even if some model details are imperfect. The paper is also valuable for its detailed characterization of flow states and ion-neutralization times in a large LXe detector, and for introducing a concurrent calibration side band that has already been used in a published WIMP search. However, the transport-model extrapolation is a genuine limitation that affects the interpretation, portability, and the completeness of the quoted systematic uncertainty.

major comments (3)
  1. [Section V.C; Eq. (4), Eq. (7)] The charged-branch tag windows are built from an ion drift model, Eq. (4), fitted to 222Rn–218Po pairs with ΔT ≤ 15 min, then applied to 214Pb+/214Bi+ trajectories out to 64–81 min. The authors state in Section V.C that this is the likely source of the 75% vs 63% gap between modeled and observed tagging efficiency. Because the tag volumes themselves are defined by this model, systematic errors in the charged branch affect the composition of the tagged sample and the portability of the quoted efficiency to other flow states or drift fields. Yet the ±7% systematic on ϵtot in Section V.B.1 includes only the 214Pb-content prior, not the transport-model extrapolation. I would like a quantitative robustness test: vary VI, VL, and λ in Eq. (4) within the ranges allowed by the 218Po+ data and the 218Po–214BiPo pair distributions, and propagate the resulting changes to ϵtot. Absent this, the clai
  2. [Appendix A; Table III] The charge branching fractions and neutralization time τn used to interpret the tag efficiency are measured from the same neutral search windows that define the tag. This self-calibration loop, combined with the assumptions that progeny charge state is independent of progenitor charge and that all charged progeny neutralize with the same mean τn, means that the modeled efficiency of 75% is not an independent validation of the transport model. In particular, the 218Po–214Pb charge branching fraction of 0.48 ± 0.12 is derived with the same assumed τn and is then replaced by the 222Rn–218Po value in the model, so the quoted ±0.12 is not propagated. The paper is transparent about these assumptions, but the systematic impact of this circularity should be assessed—for example, by re-deriving τn and the branching fractions with an independent dataset (e.g., 218Po–214BiPo pairs at late ΔT) or by
  3. [Section V.B.1; Figure 12] The spectral fit measures ϵtot and fexp simultaneously, but assumes all non-214Pb components are reduced by fexp uniformly. The paper notes that this is an approximation because background populations are not spatially uniform. The proxy-based fexp of 9.3% ± 0.6% is consistent with the direct integration, which is reassuring, but the systematic uncertainty on ϵtot does not include any contribution from this approximation. A short quantitative statement of how large the non-uniformity effect could be (e.g., by comparing the spectral-fit ϵtot with the shifted-search ϵpair in the same energy window) would strengthen the claim.
minor comments (4)
  1. [Table II] The caption is dense and the phrase 'complimentary ϵ' appears to be a typo for 'complementary.' Also, the columns for ground-state vs excited-state measurements could be clearer about which uncertainties are statistical and which are systematic.
  2. [Eq. (8)] The one-sided relation ϵtot ≳ ϵpair + (1−ϵpair)fexp is useful, but the direction of the approximation could be stated more explicitly in the text, since the subsequent estimates use '≲' and '≳' interchangeably.
  3. [References] Reference [38] contains a typo: 'Elesvier' should be 'Elsevier.'
  4. [Section IV.B] The parameters in Eqs. (1)–(3) are described as being set 'by hand'; a short explanation of the sensitivity of the final tagging efficiency to these choices would be helpful, even if the final tag windows are tuned separately.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 1.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the central 214Pb tagging efficiency is a direct spectral measurement, not a model output.

full rationale

The headline claim, ϵtot = 63%, is obtained by a spectral re-fit of the 18–75 keVee single-scatter spectrum before/after removing tagged events (Sec. V.B.1, Fig. 12). The tag volumes are constructed from an empirical flow map and ion-drift model built from 222Rn–218Po pairs (Sec. IV), independent of the 214Pb spectrum being fit; the transport model is validated against 218Po–214BiPo pairs and then checked against the measured 214Pb tag performance. The charge-branching and neutralization inputs (Table III, Appendix A) are measured from the same pair searches used in the consistency Monte-Carlo, so the modeled 75% efficiency is a self-consistency loop rather than an independent first-principles prediction; however, it is explicitly compared with, and found to exceed, the measured 63%, and it is not the source of the quoted efficiency. The systematic uncertainty on ϵtot is traced to the 214Pb branching-ratio prior from Ref. [10] (itself a published LZ background result, not a parameter of this paper's tag construction), not to the tag volumes. The only other self-referential element is the calibration side band, where the tagged sample is compared to the NEST ER model after selection with a NEST-based ER-band cut; this could mildly precondition that cross-check, but it does not bear on the tag-efficiency claim. Overall, no load-bearing step reduces to its own input by construction, and the paper explicitly flags the charged-branch extrapolation as the likely cause of the model-vs-data gap rather than concealing it.

Assumptions & free parameters 7 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 0 invented entities

No new particles, forces, or conserved quantities are postulated; the charge states and neutralization of radon progeny are known physics previously characterized by EXO-200 [36], which the paper extends with new measurements. The ledger is populated instead by the supporting machinery: by-hand tag windows (Eqs. 5 to 7), fitted ion drift parameters (VI, VL, λ), fitted charge branching fractions and neutralization time, and axioms of stationary flow, species-independent ion behavior, and negligible alpha misidentification. The headline efficiency itself is measured, not derived, so it does not appear as a fitted output here.

free parameters (7)
  • Neutral tag window parameters (Eq. 5-6) = g=15 mm, h=40 mm, κ=800 s, i=30 mm, j=30 mm, λ=800 s
    Set by hand from the 218Po-214BiPo pair-excess distributions (Section V.A). These fix the selection volume, hence both fexp and the measured ϵtot.
  • Charged tag window parameters (Eq. 7) = g+=15 mm, h+=30 mm, κ+=144 s, i+=20 mm, j+=100 mm, λ+=600 s
    Set by hand; the ΔZs window is tuned on 222Rn-218Po pairs out to ~15 min and projected to 64 min for 214Pb+ and 214Bi+ (Sections V.A, V.C).
  • Ion drift model parameters (Eq. 3-4) = VI=-0.55 mm/s, VL=-0.38 mm/s, λ=115 s
    Fitted to the median of the charged 222Rn-218Po band (Section IV.B). These set the vertical trajectory of all charged progeny in the model.
  • Initial pairing bounds (Eq. 1-3) = a=25 mm, b=0.14 mm/s, c=0.10 mm/s, d=0.10 mm/s, τ=30 s, e=0.11 mm/s, f=0.32 mm/s, ζ=80 s
    Chosen by hand from the pair-excess plots to build the first-iteration flow model (Section IV.B).
  • Charge neutralization time τn = 49 ± 4 min
    Fitted to the semicharged pair excess in Appendix A and assumed equal for 218Po+, 214Pb+, and 214Bi+ in the tag-performance model, an assumption the authors state explicitly.
  • Charge branching fractions (Table III) = 0.49 ± 0.01 (222Rn-218Po), 0.48 ± 0.12 (218Po-214Pb), 0.74 ± 0.05 (214Pb-214Bi)
    Measured from neutral-progeny pair excesses in the same LZ data and used as inputs to the Monte Carlo that predicts the 75% tag efficiency (Appendix A, Section V.C).
  • 218Po charged fraction in Section IV.C Monte Carlo = 50.3%
    Taken from EXO-200 [36] for the charged-streamline truncation model, slightly different from the 0.49 ± 0.01 measured in Appendix A; the paper does not reconcile the two values.
assumptions (6)
  • domain assumption 214Pb ground-state branching fraction is 12.7(9)% (from [13], carried through [10]).
    Used to separate ground-state and excited-state contributions in the background model; its uncertainty dominates the 7% systematic on ϵtot (Section V.B.1).
  • domain assumption The Low Mixing flow state is stationary and reproducible during science data taking; unstable periods are excluded.
    The flow map is accumulated from months of pairs; red-shaded periods in Figure 6 are cut, and the tag assumes the same flow during the data being tagged (Section IV.C).
  • ad hoc to paper Progeny charge state is independent of progenitor charge state, and all charged progeny neutralize with the same mean time τn.
    Stated in the Table III caption and Appendix A. The tag model propagates 218Po+ drift to 214Pb+ and 214Bi+, which are assumed to follow the same drift law and neutralization time.
  • ad hoc to paper The charged 214Pb+ to 214Bi+ system is treated as a single continuously existing ion in charged streamlines.
    Section V.A: 'For simplicity, we ignore this effect' (a freshly created 214Bi+ moves faster just after its unknown creation time). The authors identify this as the likely source of the 63% vs 75% gap.
  • domain assumption Alpha-decay identification in the fiducial volume is sufficiently efficient and pure that misidentification is negligible.
    Section III states the energy-based alpha identification is assumed to have 'sufficient efficiency and purity that misidentification of alpha decays is negligible compared to the other known inefficiencies discussed.'
  • domain assumption Only neutral and +1 charge states of progeny meaningfully affect the spatial populations.
    Section IV.A asserts other charge states are too short-lived to matter, citing [35].

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Flow-dependent tagging of $^{214}$Pb decays in the LZ dark matter detector." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/BGCUCMGV

@misc{pith2026250819117,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Flow-dependent tagging of $^214$Pb decays in the LZ dark matter detector},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/BGCUCMGV}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2508.19117}
}
abstract

The LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) experiment is searching for dark matter interactions in a liquid xenon time projection chamber (LXe-TPC). This article demonstrates how control of the flow state in the LXe-TPC enables the identification of pairs of sequential alpha-decays, which are used to map fluid flow and ion drift in the liquid target. The resulting transport model is used to tag $^{214}$Pb beta-decays, a leading background to dark matter signals in LZ. Temporally evolving volume selections, at a cost of 9.0% of exposure, target the decay of each $^{214}$Pb atom up to 81 minutes after production, resulting in (63 $\pm$ 6$_{\mathrm{stat}}$ $\pm$ 7$_{\mathrm{sys}}$)% identification of $^{214}$Pb decays to ground state. We also demonstrate how flow-based tagging techniques enable a novel calibration side band that is concurrent with science data.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2508.19117 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. FIG. 1. The LZ xenon circulation system, re-printed with [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. FIG. 2. Comparison of three flow states with different degrees of mixing in the LXe-TPC. From left to right the columns [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. FIG. 3. Reconstruction of events with two S1 pulses, with [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_3.png] view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (14 more)
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: FIG. 5. Above: Horizontal displacements of all possible [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_5.png]
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: FIG. 6. Time dependence of the measured average speed of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_6.png]
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: FIG. 7. Distribution of the time-separation ∆ [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_7.png]
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: FIG. 9. Illustration of a [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_9.png]
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: FIG. 10 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_10.png]
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: FIG. 11. Charged progeny search performance for [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_11.png]
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: FIG. 12. Single-scatter background spectra in the 5.5 tonne fiducial volume, showing the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_12.png]
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: FIG. 13. Reconstructed energy spectra for single scatter interactions in the 5.5 tonne fiducial volume. The top panel shows [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_13.png]
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: FIG. 14. Distributions of time separations (∆ [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p018_14.png]
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: FIG. 15. WIMP ROI flow-tagged events displayed in S2- [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p019_15.png]
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: FIG. 16. Time-averaged axial velocities (∆ [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p021_16.png]
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: FIG. 17 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p022_17.png]
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: FIG. 18. Two Monte-Carlo simulations of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p022_18.png]
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: FIG. 19. Absolute differences between the simulated number [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_19.png]

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