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REVIEW 4 major objections 5 minor 178 references

Jupiter's main cloud deck sits at 1–2 bar, not at the 0.7-bar ammonia condensation level, according to a combined analysis of visible and near-infrared spectra.

Reviewed by Pith at T0; open to challenge. T0 means a machine referee read the full paper against a public rubric. the ladder, T0–T4 →

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T0 review · deepseek-v4-flash

2026-08-01 02:08 UTC pith:RXW4PUO6

load-bearing objection A transparent, technically impressive retrieval study whose headline 'ammonia-cloud link' is built into the parameterization rather than recovered; worth refereeing with major revisions. the 4 major comments →

arxiv 2607.25542 v1 pith:RXW4PUO6 submitted 2026-07-28 astro-ph.EP

Cloud and ammonia vertical profiles in the equatorial atmosphere of Jupiter determined from visible to near-IR observations made by VLT/MUSE, Cassini/VIMS, IRTF/SpeX and Juno/JIRAM

Patrick G. J. Irwin , Asier Anguiano-Arteaga , Michelle Colantoni , Joseph Penn , Santiago P\'erez-Hoyos , Davide Grassi , Alessandro Mura , Charlotte L. B. Alexander
show 3 more authors
Leigh N. Fletcher Simon C. A. Toogood Michael T. Roman
This is my paper
classification astro-ph.EP
keywords Jupiteratmospheric cloudsammonia profileradiative transferVLT/MUSECassini/VIMSJuno/JIRAM5-micron window
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal T4 reserved

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper claims that Jupiter's equatorial atmosphere can be modeled with three cloud layers—a thick lower cloud of large (∼10 μm) particles at 1–2 bar, a thin upper cloud (∼10 μm) at ∼0.55 bar with a strong 3-μm absorption, and a blue-absorbing chromophore layer inside the lower cloud—linked to a two-step ammonia profile that drops at the lower cloud base and saturates at the upper cloud. If true, the visible cloud deck is deeper than the textbook ammonia condensation level, and no separate photochemical haze is needed. The same model also reconciles deep ammonia abundances inferred from reflected sunlight with microwave and radio determinations from Juno and the VLA. A sympathetic reader would care because it offers a single self-consistent picture of Jupiter's clouds and ammonia that ties together four independent datasets across 0.48–5.15 μm.

Core claim

The central claim is that a single combined cloud/ammonia model fits Jupiter's equatorial spectra from 0.48 to 5.15 μm. The model has three components: an optically-thick lower cloud (radius r≈10 μm) at 1–2 bar, composed of large, highly scattering particles that are absorbing at 5 μm; an optically-thin upper cloud (r≈10 μm) at ∼0.55 bar requiring a distinct absorption band near 3 μm; and a layer of small (r≈0.2 μm) blue-absorbing chromophore particles located within the lower cloud. The ammonia profile is parameterized to drop sharply at the lower cloud base and then to saturate at the upper cloud's condensation level. This setup explains the puzzlingly deep cloud-top pressures found from v

What carries the argument

The central mechanism is the three-cloud/ two-step-ammonia parameterization. Cloud-1 (r≈10 μm, base at 1–2 bar) is optically thick and highly scattering at visible wavelengths but absorbing at 5 μm; Cloud-2 (r≈10 μm, base at the ammonia saturation pressure, ∼0.55 bar) is optically thin with a 3-μm absorption feature; and a chromophore layer (r≈0.2 μm, at 1.25 bar) sits inside Cloud-1. The ammonia mole fraction is forced to have a deep value, drop to an intermediate value at the Cloud-1 base, then remain constant until saturation at the Cloud-2 base, above which humidity decays with altitude. The argument is carried by a line-by-line radiative-transfer retrieval that computes particle scatter

Load-bearing premise

The load-bearing premise is that the ammonia profile really has a sharp two-step shape—a drop at the lower cloud base and saturation at the upper cloud base—which is imposed by the model parameterization; if the true ammonia profile is smoother or follows a different temperature-pressure relation, the cloud–ammonia coincidences and the microwave reconciliation would not follow.

What would settle it

A concrete test: measure the ammonia vertical profile between 0.5 and 3 bar with a limb-sounding or radio instrument at about 0.1-bar resolution. If ammonia is found to increase monotonically with depth (a single smooth gradient) rather than showing a plateau between the two cloud bases, the two-step profile that underpins the cloud–ammonia link and the deep-abundance reconciliation would be contradicted.

Watch this falsifier — get emailed when new claim-graph text bears on it.

If this is right

  • Jupiter's visible cloud deck is located at 1–2 bar, deeper than the commonly assumed ammonia condensation level near 0.7 bar; cloud-tracking and wind-shear studies should assign main cloud features to these deeper pressures.
  • No separate detached photochemical haze is required: reflectivity variations seen in methane-absorbing bands are explained by the opacity and vertical extent of the thin upper cloud (Cloud-2).
  • Belt/zone differences in 5-μm brightness are mostly due to changes in the single-scattering albedo of the lower-cloud particles, with cloud opacity playing a secondary role.
  • Deep ammonia abundances retrieved from visible/near-IR spectra are consistent with Juno/MWR and VLA determinations when a two-step ammonia profile is adopted, resolving a previous factor-of-1.5 discrepancy.
  • The upper cloud's spectral properties are consistent with hybrid ammonia-ice particles (not pure ammonia ice), implying that ammonia ice clouds are widespread but optically thin and mixed with other 3-μm-absorbing materials.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The paper's 'intimate link' between ammonia and clouds is installed by the parameterization rather than recovered from the data; a testable extension is to run retrievals with a smooth ammonia profile (no two-step structure) and see whether the 0.9–2.5 μm spectra degrade, which would confirm that the two-step shape is actually required.
  • If the model is correct, the 1–2 bar 'Cloud-1' must contain a water-ice-like component despite water's expected condensation at 5–7 bar; this implies efficient vertical lofting or a water–ammonia mixture such as 'mushballs,' a prediction that could be tested by searching for weak water absorption features at 2.7 μm or in the 5-μm window with higher signal-to-noise observations.
  • The upper 'haze' being reinterpreted as convective ammonia-ice cirrus implies discrete, temporally varying cloud features; time-series imaging at methane bands (e.g., from JWST or future missions) could look for convective clumps and their evolution, which would distinguish this from a static photochemical haze.
  • The deep ammonia abundances retrieved in the EZ (∼500 ppm) are notably higher than earlier visible-light estimates; applying the same two-step ammonia parameterization to independent datasets such as JWST/MIRI or ALMA would provide a strong cross-check of the reconciliation with microwave results.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

4 major / 5 minor

Summary. This paper presents a combined cloud/ammonia retrieval model for Jupiter's equatorial atmosphere (EZ, NEB, NEDF) fitted simultaneously to VLT/MUSE (0.48–0.93 μm), Cassini/VIMS (0.35–5.15 μm), IRTF/SpeX (0.8–2.5 μm), and Juno/JIRAM-SPE (2.0–5.0 μm) observations. The model has three aerosol components: a thick lower cloud (Cloud-1, r≈10 μm) at 1–2 bar, a thin upper cloud (Cloud-2, r≈10 μm) at ~0.55 bar with a 3-μm absorption, and a blue-absorbing chromophore (r≈0.2 μm) embedded in Cloud-1. The NH3 profile is parameterized as a two-step profile, with a drop at the Cloud-1 base and saturation at the Cloud-2 base. The authors report good fits (χ²/n = 1.4–3.5) across 0.48–5.2 μm and claim that no separate photochemical haze is required, that the main cloud deck lies at 1–2 bar rather than ~0.7 bar, and that the retrieved deep ammonia abundances are consistent with Juno/MWR and VLA determinations.

Significance. If the retrieved structure is correct, the paper would resolve a long-standing discrepancy between cloud-top pressures derived from visible/near-IR spectroscopy and those assumed from ammonia condensation theory, and it would reconcile visible-wavelength deep NH3 estimates with microwave values. The methodological strengths are substantial: the use of line-by-line look-up tables instead of correlated-k approximations, the combination of four independent datasets over a very broad spectral range, the public availability of code and calibrated VIMS data, and the transparent reporting of priors, fixed parameters, and formal retrieval errors in Table 1. However, as discussed below, several of the paper's headline interpretive claims are not independently recovered from the data but are built into the adopted parameterization.

major comments (4)
  1. [§5.2 (Cloud-2 base definition)] The 'intimate link' between the ammonia profile and the cloud structure is installed by the parameterization, not demonstrated. The text states that the NH3 mole fraction 'was assumed to have a deep value, then drop to an intermediate value at pressure ∼1−2 bar' with Cloud-1 'based at this level', and that Cloud-2's base was 'set to this condensation pressure' computed from the fitted mid-level NH3 and the assumed T-p profile. Consequently, conclusions (ii) and (v) in §7 — that Cloud-1 coincides with an ammonia drop and Cloud-2 with the condensation level — are tautological for this model. A fit using this coupled parameterization cannot be used as evidence for the link. I recommend either a decoupled retrieval (allowing the NH3 step pressure and Cloud-1 base to vary independently, and treating Cloud-2's base as a free parameter with a wider prior, or varying T(p)) or at least a sensitiv
  2. [§5.2 / Table 1] Several fixed inputs are load-bearing for the central model: the particle radii (10/10/0.2 μm), the chromophore base pressure (1.25 bar), the PH3 knee pressure (1.0 bar) and fractional scale height (0.3), and the water profile. The paper acknowledges degeneracies and defers a nested-sampling exploration to future work, but the conclusions include specific particle sizes and compositions (e.g., 'possibly consistent with water ice', 'possibly consistent with ammonia ice'). Without at least a limited sensitivity analysis — for example, varying PH3 knee, particle radius, and chromophore pressure for one representative region — the reader cannot know whether the retrieved n_imag spectra and the 'no separate photochemical haze' conclusion are robust or artefacts of the chosen priors. This is especially critical because the PH3 profile is known to couple strongly to aerosol opacity at p<1 bar.
  3. [§5.2 ('forward-modelling error')] The quoted goodness-of-fit is with respect to hand-set error bars: the spectral radiance errors were 'set to either 0.9% of the reflected sunlight from a perfect Lambertian scatterer, or a brightness temperature error of 0.75 K, whichever was larger', explicitly to incorporate forward-modelling uncertainty. With these inflated errors, χ²/n = 1.4–3.5. This means the model does not fit the data to within the actual measurement noise; the 'consistent with observations' claim in the abstract is therefore weaker than it appears. The paper should state this more explicitly in the abstract and conclusions, and ideally show residuals against the true measurement noise in at least one figure so the reader can assess the real quality of fit.
  4. [§5.2.3 / Table 1] The claimed reconciliation with Juno/MWR and VLA deep NH3 determinations is only weakly supported in the EZ. The two-angle EZ retrieval gives NH3(d) = 1847±1067 ppm with a 58% relative error, barely consistent with the ~340 ppm MWR/VLA value at the 1.4σ level. The NEB constraint of 134±38 ppm is better, but the EZ is the archetypal zone region discussed in the abstract. In light of the large posterior uncertainty, conclusion (v) should be tempered, or the deep NH3 retrieval made more robust (e.g., by including additional 5-μm window data that probes depths below Cloud-1).
minor comments (5)
  1. [Fig. 2 caption] The heading 'No Gamma Gamma' in the reconstructed true-colour image appears to be either a typo or a placeholder and should be corrected.
  2. [Appendix D] Typo: 'upper haze layer andand at deeper levels' should read 'upper haze layer and at deeper levels'.
  3. [§4.3] Typo: 'exactlymirror' should be 'exactly mirror'.
  4. [Table 1 note] The table lists 'chromophore layer base presure' — 'presure' should be 'pressure'. Also, the note explaining that the errors are formal retrieval errors, not measurement noise, could be more prominent.
  5. [§5.2] The phrase 'forward-modelling error' is used to describe the 0.9%/0.75 K error bars, but it is not defined in the model setup. A short definition or reference would help the reader understand why this value was chosen.

Circularity Check

2 steps flagged

Cloud–ammonia 'intimate link' is installed by the Section 5.2 parameterization: the NH3 drop is placed at Cloud-1's base, and Cloud-2's base is computed from NH3 saturation. Partial circularity, not total.

specific steps
  1. self definitional [Section 5.2, 'Retrievals of typical combined EZ, NEB and NEDF spectra']
    "The ammonia mole fraction profile was assumed to have a deep value, then drop to an intermediate value at pressure ∼1−2 bar. This pressure was determined by the retrieval model and a lower cloud, 'Cloud-1', based at this level, with a fixed fractional scale height of 0.25 above."

    The NH3 profile's drop pressure is the same fitted value as Cloud-1's base pressure. The abstract and Conclusion (ii) then report 'the lower cloud coinciding with an initial drop in ammonia abundance' as a finding, but this coincidence is true by construction: the retrieval was set up so that the ammonia drop occurs exactly at Cloud-1's base. The data can constrain the common pressure, but cannot test whether a drop and a cloud base actually coincide independently.

  2. self definitional [Section 5.2 and Table 1 note; also Conclusion (ii)]
    "The ammonia mole fraction was then held at a fitted intermediate value above this cloud until the pressure was low enough that the partial pressure exceeded the saturated vapour pressure, calculated from our reference temperature-pressure profile. The base of a second upper cloud, 'Cloud-2', was set to this condensation pressure... Table 1: 'There is no listed error for p2 as this is computed from NH3(m) and the assumed temperature-pressure profile.'"

    Cloud-2's base pressure p2 is not retrieved from the spectra; it is computed from the fitted mid-level NH3 mixing ratio and the assumed Irwin (2009) T(p) profile. The claim that the upper cloud 'coincides with the ammonia condensation level' is therefore an input identity, not an independent result. The retrieval cannot decide whether an independently placed upper-cloud base would sit at the NH3 saturation level; it is forced to sit there by the parameterization.

full rationale

The spectral fitting itself is largely self-contained: cloud opacities, the common Cloud-1/NH3-step pressure, mid/deep NH3 abundances, trace-gas abundances, and the n_imag spectra are all genuinely fitted to the combined 0.48–5.15 μm datasets, and the paper checks against external VIMS and JIRAM calibrations. The circularity is concentrated in the 'intimate link' between clouds and ammonia: the Section 5.2 parameterization forces the NH3 drop to coincide with Cloud-1's base and forces Cloud-2's base to equal the NH3 saturation pressure of the fitted mid-level NH3. The abstract's and Conclusion (ii)'s phrasing presents these coincidences as discoveries, when they are definitional outputs of the adopted retrieval model. The paper is partly transparent about this—it says the profile 'was assumed' and defers Nested Sampling to explore degeneracies—but the central coincidences are still over-sold as findings. I therefore assign a partial circularity score of 6 rather than higher, because the deep/mid ammonia abundances, cloud opacities, and spectral properties are not circularly derived and retain independent content.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

13 free parameters · 8 axioms · 0 invented entities

The model contributes fitted aerosol opacities/pressures, retrieved refractive-index spectra, and gas abundances, plus an imposed two-step ammonia profile. Nothing is derived from first principles; all constraints come from spectral libraries, a fixed T-p profile, and Mie scattering. The main free content is the pointwise n_imag spectra, the opacities, and the ammonia step values; the main structural input is the ammonia–cloud coupling itself.

free parameters (13)
  • Cloud-1 opacity τ1 (1.5 μm) = 6.2–121 (per region)
    Fitted per region; 10–100× the upper-cloud opacity; central to belt/zone contrast.
  • Cloud-1 base pressure p1 = 1.55–2.15 bar
    Fitted; location of the lower cloud and of the imposed NH3 step.
  • Cloud-2 opacity τ2 = 0.83–2.15
    Fitted; controls methane-band (haze) appearance.
  • Cloud-2 fractional scale height f2 = 0.24–0.39
    Fitted; vertical extent above saturation level.
  • Chromophore opacity τ3 = 0.11–0.38
    Fitted; small particle opacity for blue absorption.
  • n_imag spectra of Cloud-1, Cloud-2, chromophore = retrieved pointwise over 0.4–5.2 μm
    Retrieved with 50% prior errors + Kramers-Kronig consistency; the main spectral degrees of freedom; degeneracy risk acknowledged by authors.
  • NH3 deep mole fraction = 134–1847 ppm (EZ 497±117; two-angle EZ 1847±1067)
    Fitted; deep value below Cloud-1; EZ essentially unconstrained in the two-angle case yet used in conclusion (v).
  • NH3 mid-level mole fraction = 27.1–61.4 ppm
    Fitted; sets the saturation pressure and hence Cloud-2 base by construction.
  • Cloud particle sizes and variances (r=10, 10, 0.2 μm) = fixed, not fitted
    Settled by hand (§5.2); the large-particle forward-scattering explanation and the chromophore size argument depend on these choices.
  • Chromophore base pressure 1.25 bar = fixed
    Fixed rather than retrieved; the 'chromophore within the lower cloud' claim relies on this choice (upper-cloud chromophore was tested, little difference).
  • Forward-modelling error 0.9% / 0.75 K = hand-set
    Added so the model can pass chi-square; defines what 'consistent' means and controls parameter constraints.
  • PH3 deep abundance = 0.26–10.4 ppm
    Fitted; profile shape (knee 1 bar, FSH 0.3) fixed, acknowledged to leak into Cloud-2 n_imag retrieval.
  • H2O deep abundance = 3.3–8.9 ppm
    Fitted; used to argue the lower cloud resembles water ice / water-ammonia mixtures.
axioms (8)
  • domain assumption Temperature-pressure profile fixed to Irwin (2009)/CIRS reference; no temperature retrieval
    Converts retrieved pressures to temperatures; the Cloud-2/condensation coincidence and the 172 K (1.1–1.2 bar) cloud-top inference depend on it.
  • domain assumption Mie theory for spherical particles with gamma size distributions
    All cross-sections and phase functions computed via Mie; non-spherical or irregular particles could change the forward-scattering conclusion.
  • standard math Kramers-Kronig relation connects retrieved n_imag to n_real
    Standard; assumes causal, linear material response for all three aerosol types.
  • ad hoc to paper Two-step ammonia parameterization with drop at Cloud-1 base and saturation at Cloud-2 base
    The premise that produces the claimed ammonia–cloud coincidences; not independently justified (Section 5.2).
  • domain assumption Fixed gas deep abundances (He, CH4, H2O, H2S at ECCM profile)
    H2S cannot be detected in this spectral range (Fig. C1) and is fixed; its profile affects the NH4SH/mushball interpretation of the NH3 drop.
  • domain assumption Fixed PH3 profile shape (knee at 1.0 bar, FSH 0.3)
    Acknowledged to affect retrieved sub-bar aerosol opacity and Cloud-2 n_imag; Harkett et al. (2024) used a different knee pressure.
  • domain assumption Nightside thermal emission equals dayside thermal emission in the EZ day–night subtraction
    Used to isolate reflected sunlight in the 5-μm window (Section 4.5).
  • domain assumption Accuracy of line data (HITRAN2022, ExoMOL, TheoReTS, Karkoschka & Tomasko 2010)
    The methane and ammonia band depths that anchor the retrievals come from these libraries.

pith-pipeline@v1.3.0-alltime-deepseek · 60333 in / 20558 out tokens · 191958 ms · 2026-08-01T02:08:28.770463+00:00 · methodology

0 comments
read the original abstract

We present a combined cloud/ammonia model for Jupiter's equatorial atmosphere from 0.1 to 10 bar, consistent with observations made at a range of observation geometries from 0.35 to 5.15 $\mu$m by VLT/MUSE, Cassini/VIMS, IRTF/SpeX and Juno/JIRAM. Our cloud model has three components: 1) an optically-thick lower cloud (radius $r$$\sim$$10$ $\mu$m) at 1-2 bar; 2) an optically-thin upper cloud ($r$$\sim$$10$ $\mu$m) at $\sim$0.55 bar; and 3) a layer of blue-absorbing chromophore particles ($r$$\sim$$0.2$ $\mu$m) situated within the main lower cloud. The ammonia profile is intimately linked with the cloud profile with the lower cloud coinciding with an initial drop in ammonia abundance and the upper cloud coinciding with the ammonia condensation level. The large lower cloud particles are highly scattering at visible wavelengths, allowing sunlight to scatter through the clouds and be Rayleigh-scattered from the deep atmosphere. At 5 $\mu$m, the lower cloud particles are found to be more absorbing, with the belt/zone differences mostly accounted for by changes in the single-scattering albedo of these particles and secondarily by changes in the cloud opacity. The spectral properties of these lower cloud particles are possibly consistent with a component of water ice. The upper cloud particles need a distinct absorption band near 3 $\mu$m, possibly consistent with a component of ammonia ice. We note that we do not need a separate upper-level photochemical haze in our model. Instead, we find that the features seen at methane-absorbing wavelengths are caused by variations in the opacity and vertical extent of the upper cloud layer.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2607.25542 by Alessandro Mura, Asier Anguiano-Arteaga, Charlotte L. B. Alexander, Davide Grassi, Joseph Penn, Leigh N. Fletcher, Michael T. Roman, Michelle Colantoni, Patrick G. J. Irwin, Santiago P\'erez-Hoyos, Simon C. A. Toogood.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Observed particle back-scatter (178◦ phase angle) cross-section from the Galileo Probe Nephelometer (Ragent et al. 1998), recorded during the Galileo probe’s descent into Jupiter’s atmosphere on December 7th 1995. Here we have used the calibration where the baseline has been adjusted to zero at 𝑝 = 1.345 bar, using pre-launch calibration data extrapolated to cover out-of-range temperatures experienced duri… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Jupiter as observed by VLT/MUSE on 9th April 2018. The left and middle images show the reconstructed ‘true-colour’ representations following the approach of Irwin et al. (2025), where the MUSE spectra at wavelengths less than the MUSE minimum wavelength of 475 nm have been set to the disc-averaged Jupiter spectrum of Karkoschka (1994), scaled to match the MUSE spectra at overlapping wavelengths and the res… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Cassini/VIMS observations of Jupiter on 11th December 2000 (V1355256529_3) and 31st December 2000 (V1356976257_3), in both VIS and IR channels. Observations in the VIS channel have been converted to ‘true colour’, as described earlier, and are not gamma-corrected. Observations in the IR channel are shown averaged over three wavelength bands, one centred at 1.27 𝜇m showing the overall cloud reflectivity, on… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Top panel shows the 0 ◦ zenith angle radiance spectra extracted from the VIMS-VIS and VIMS-IR V1355256529_3 approach observation in the Equatorial Zone (EZ) and North Equatorial Belt (NEB). Also shown are the modelled reflected solar spectra from Lambertian surfaces at Jupiter with reflectivities of 1.0 and 0.1, respectively. Bottom panel shows the observed radiance spectra converted to reflectivity. The j… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: JIRAM-SPE reconstructed cylindrical maps of Jupiter observed on 27th August 2016 (JM0003 planning period) from 40◦S to 40◦N (planetocentric), showing the brightest radiances in each bin at 4.78, 2.73, and 2.50 𝜇m. Longitudes are System III, East is positive. The 4.78-𝜇m map shows thermal emission from the 5 – 10 bar level and is not further corrected. However, for the 2.73-𝜇m map, which is sensitive to ref… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Comparison of MUSE, approach VIMS-VIS, approach VIMS-IR and IRTF/SpeX spectra, averaged along the central meridian of Jupiter. The upper panel compares the radiance spectra (normalised to the same distance from the Sun of 5.2 AU), while the lower panel compares the reflectivities. 𝑝 < 0.5 bar (e.g., West et al. 1986). This is surprising as such hazes in other planetary atmospheres usually show limb-brighte… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Comparison of Minnaert-reconstructed MUSE, VIMS-VIS and VIMS-IR spectra from 0.3 to 4 𝜇m in the EZ (0◦N). The top row shows the reconstructed spectra at nadir, the middle row shows reconstructed spectra at 42.37◦ , and the bottom row shows the fitted Minnaert-𝑘 spectra. A log scale has been used for wavelength to more easily compare the spectra. In the Minnaert-𝑘 spectra, the estimated noise for VIMS-IR is… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Model Jovian atmospheric profiles. Left panel shows the variation of temperature with pressure in our reference model atmosphere. Middle panel shows the a priori variation with pressure of the mole fraction of H2O, NH3, H2S and CH4, calculated using an Equilibrium Cloud Condensation Model, while the right panel shows the associated cloud profiles, showing that we expect water to condense at 5 – 7 bar, NH4S… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Complex refractive index spectra of candidate Jovian condensates from various sources: Water (Hale & Querry 1973), Water ice (Warren & Brandt 2008), Ammonia (Martonchik et al. 1984; Howett et al. 2007), NH4SH (Ferraro et al. 1980; Howett et al. 2007), ‘Tholin K84’ (Khare et al. 1984), ‘Tholin K93’ (Khare et al. 1993), hydrazine (Clapp & Miller 1996), and the proposed Jovian chromophore of Carlson et al. (2… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Calculations of nadir two-way cloud-free transmission down to different pressure levels in Jupiter’s atmosphere at MUSE wavelengths. Cal￾culations are shown for ammonia absorption included, or not included, and also for Rayleigh scattering included, or not included. [!h] Transmission Transmission [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Calculations of nadir two-way cloud-free transmission down to different pressure levels in Jupiter’s atmosphere at VIMS-IR wavelengths. Calculations are shown for ammonia absorption included, or not included, and also for Rayleigh scattering included, or not included. At these wavelengths, omitting Rayleigh scattering opacity makes little difference, but large changes are seen at short-wave continuum wave… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Typical spectra from our 2018 VLT/MUSE (top) and 2000 Cassini/VIMS-IR (bottom) observations, centred on the Equatorial Zone (EZ), the North Equatorial Belt (NEB) and in the centre of a North Equatorial Dark Feature (NEDF). Both panels also show the EZ spectrum, roughly scaled to match the NEDF spectrum at short wavelengths to aid comparison. In the bottom panel, showing the VIMS-IR spectra, the reflectivi… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Analysis of VLT/MUSE spot spectra. The top row shows the difference between the observed EZ, NEB and NEDF spectra (in black) compared with calculated two-way transmissions of our standard cloud-free atmosphere (omitting Rayleigh scattering) to various pressure levels, roughly scaled to be consistent with the peak EZ – NEDF difference near 820 nm. The transmissions are colour-coded, as defined in the panel… view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Reflecting layer model retrievals of MUSE spectra of four representative regions near Jupiter’s equator: EZ (Equatorial Zone), NEB (North Equatorial Belt), NEDF (North Equatorial Dark Feature) and the GRS (Great Red Spot). The left hand panel shows the reflectance profiles retrieved from the sample MUSE spectra in the 875 – 910 nm band in the these regions, and the right hand panel shows the observed spec… view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: 5-𝜇m spectra extracted from the EZ of the VIMS flyby observation V1356976257_3 on the dayside (top row) and nightside (middle row) at a viewing zenith angle of ∼30◦ , in terms of both radiance and equivalent reflectivity (N.B., on the nightside there is clearly no actual reflectivity, so the spectrum should be considered as an equivalent dayside reflectivity). The nightside spectrum is compared to black-b… view at source ↗
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Simultaneous fit to two JIRAM-SPE spectra observed near the northern edge of the EZ in 2016 at 4.75◦N and 11.75◦E, one on nightside (viewing zenith angle 31.5◦ ) and one on dayside (viewing zenith angle of 75.1◦ , solar zenith angle of 30.1◦ , azimuth angle 94◦ ). The spectrum is split into two regions: 2.4 – 4.4 𝜇m reflectivity (top row); and 4.0 – 5.0 𝜇m radiance (bottom row). The observed spectra and e… view at source ↗
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Fit to combined MUSE/VIMS EZ 0 ◦−zenith angle spectrum (𝜒 2 /𝑛 = 2.61). The combined spectral range has been split into separate sections to aid comparison. Top row shows the measured and fitted reflectivity spectra (left) and difference (right) for the range 0.475 to 1.0 𝜇m, which covers the MUSE range and the lower part of VIMS-IR. The transition between the MUSE and VIMS-IR data is indicated by the ver… view at source ↗
Figure 20
Figure 20. Figure 20: As [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p021_20.png] view at source ↗
Figure 22
Figure 22. Figure 22: Cloud and ammonia profiles fitted to observed 0 ◦−zenith angle spectra in the EZ (blue), NEB (red) and NEDF (black). The left hand panel shows the lower cloud profiles (Cloud-1), the second panel shows the upper cloud profiles (Cloud-2), while the third panel shows the chromophore profiles. The right hand panel shows the ammonia mole fraction profiles. 1 2 3 4 5 10−5 10−4 10−3 10−2 10−1 Cloud 1 1 2 3 4 5 … view at source ↗
Figure 23
Figure 23. Figure 23: Spectral variations of 𝑛imag fitted to the combined nadir MUSE/VIMS 0 ◦−zenith angle spectra in the EZ (blue), NEB (red) and NEDF (black). The a priori spectra and errors are indicated by the dashed lines. For clarity, only the retrieved error range on the EZ spectrum is shown in grey. The top panel shows the fitted lower cloud (Cloud-1) 𝑛imag spectra, the middle panel shows the fitted upper cloud (Cloud-… view at source ↗
Figure 25
Figure 25. Figure 25: As [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p024_25.png] view at source ↗
Figure 26
Figure 26. Figure 26: Cloud and ammonia profiles fitted to the observed two-angle spectra in the EZ (blue), NEB (red) and NEDF (black). The left hand panel shows the lower cloud profiles (Cloud-1), the second panel shows the upper cloud profiles (Cloud-2), while the third panel shows the chromophore profiles. The right hand panel shows the ammonia mole fraction profiles. 1 2 3 4 5 10−6 10−5 10−4 10−3 10−2 10−1 Cloud 1 1 2 3 4 … view at source ↗
Figure 27
Figure 27. Figure 27: As [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p025_27.png] view at source ↗
Figure 28
Figure 28. Figure 28: Cloud retrieval comparison. Solid lines show the cloud opac￾ity/km profiles retrieved earlier for single-angle (0 ◦ zenith angle) retrievals of the EZ, NEB and NEDF, and shown separately in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p026_28.png] view at source ↗
Figure 30
Figure 30. Figure 30: Gas mole fraction profiles (H2O and NH3) and cloud profile summary for the EZ, NEB and NEDF (gas abundances from 0 ◦−zenith angle retrievals). The a priori H2S and NH3 profiles are shown as coloured, dashed lines (the H2S abundance was not fitted). The light-shaded blue and pink lines are the SVP curves for H2O and NH3 from our assumed 𝑇 ( 𝑝) profile. We find a thick lower cloud (Cloud-1, shaded blue) bas… view at source ↗

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