Standard estimates of infection effects on health have a causal interpretation that depends on the population frequencies of different pathogen strains when strain-specific effects vary.
Causal effects in clinical and epidemiological studies via potential outcomes: concepts and analytical approaches
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Latent variation in pathogen strain-specific effects under multiple-versions-of-treatment theory
Standard estimates of infection effects on health have a causal interpretation that depends on the population frequencies of different pathogen strains when strain-specific effects vary.