Minicharged Particles at Accelerators: Progress and Prospects

Ameir Shaa; James Pinfold; Marc de Montigny; Michael Staelens; Pierre-Philippe A. Ouimet

arxiv: 2307.07855 · v3 · submitted 2023-07-15 · ✦ hep-ph · hep-ex

Minicharged Particles at Accelerators: Progress and Prospects

Marc de Montigny , Pierre-Philippe A. Ouimet , James Pinfold , Ameir Shaa , Michael Staelens This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-24 07:28 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ✦ hep-ph hep-ex

keywords minicharged particlesdark sectorsparticle acceleratorsLHCexperimental constraintsbeyond Standard Modelcharge quantizationdark matter

0 comments

The pith

Minicharged particles remain possible across a substantial unexplored window of mass and mixing parameters at LHC energies.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This review surveys the theoretical models predicting minicharged particles, their experimental signatures at accelerators, and the accumulated constraints from both direct searches and indirect observations. It establishes that while decades of data have placed severe limits, a sizable region of the mCP mass-mixing parameter space has not yet been probed by current facilities including the LHC. The work matters because such particles could constitute a dark matter subcomponent or help address charge quantization questions, and ongoing accelerator runs offer a direct path to test these possibilities. The authors compile existing bounds and outline prospects for new searches that could close or confirm the remaining window.

Core claim

Although several decades of indirect observations and direct experimental searches for mCPs at particle accelerators have led to severe constraints, a substantial window of the mCP mass-mixing parameter space remains unexplored at the energy frontier accessible to current state-of-the-art accelerators such as the LHC.

What carries the argument

Minicharged particles (mCPs), hypothetical free particles with effective electric charges much smaller than the elementary charge e, together with their production and detection signatures at accelerators.

If this is right

New data from the LHC and other accelerators can directly test the unexplored mCP parameter space.
Detection of mCPs would provide evidence for hidden sectors and potentially explain the EDGES 21 cm anomaly via a minicharged dark matter component.
Absence of signals in planned searches would tighten bounds on models of charge quantization and dark matter.
Accelerator constraints complement cosmological and astrophysical limits on mCPs.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

Updated detector technologies at existing colliders could systematically map the remaining mCP window without requiring new facilities.
A confirmed mCP signal would force reevaluation of how hidden-sector particles couple to the visible sector.
The review's compilation of bounds offers a ready reference for prioritizing search strategies at upcoming runs.

Load-bearing premise

Existing theoretical models correctly predict mCP signatures and prior experimental constraints have been accurately interpreted without missing new physics effects.

What would settle it

A dedicated search result at the LHC or a comparable accelerator that either detects mCPs inside the remaining mass-mixing window or excludes the entire window through improved sensitivity.

read the original abstract

Minicharged particles (mCPs), hypothetical free particles with effective electric charges much smaller than the elementary charge, $e$, offer a valuable probe of dark sectors and fundamental physics through several clear experimental signatures. Various models of physics beyond the Standard Model predict such particles, the existence of which could help elucidate the ongoing mysteries regarding electric charge quantization and the nature of dark matter. Moreover, a hypothetical scenario involving a small minicharged subcomponent of dark matter has recently been demonstrated as a viable explanation of the anomaly in the 21 cm hydrogen absorption signal reported by the EDGES collaboration. Although several decades of indirect observations and direct experimental searches for mCPs at particle accelerators have led to severe constraints, a substantial window of the mCP mass$\unicode{x2013}$mixing parameter space remains unexplored at the energy frontier accessible to current state-of-the-art accelerators, such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Consequently, mCPs have remained topical over the years, and new experimental searches at accelerators have been gaining interest. In this article, we review the theoretical frameworks in which mCPs emerge and their phenomenological implications, the current direct and indirect constraints on mCPs, and the present state of the ongoing and upcoming searches for mCPs at particle accelerators.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Desk Editor's Note private letter to a colleague

A review that compiles existing mCP constraints and prospects but adds no new results or analysis.

read the letter

This review on minicharged particles at accelerators doesn't introduce any new theoretical frameworks, calculations, or experimental data. It mainly recaps models where these particles appear, existing constraints from indirect observations and direct searches, and the potential for future accelerator experiments. It does a solid job of connecting mCPs to broader questions like charge quantization and dark matter, including a nod to the EDGES 21 cm anomaly as a possible application. The discussion of remaining open parameter space at LHC energies is a straightforward summary of where things stand, which could help prioritize searches. The authors have gathered the phenomenological implications in one place. The paper is honest about being a review rather than original research. No internal contradictions or problematic assumptions stand out from the provided information. The central claim about unexplored space follows from the literature it cites, so the circularity burden is zero. The stress test didn't find any specific flaws. One minor soft spot is that its reliability depends entirely on how faithfully it represents the cited papers' results, but that's true for any review and not a flaw unique to this one. The abstract doesn't overstate things or invent new entities. This would be useful for experimentalists at the LHC or theorists working on dark sectors who want an overview without digging through dozens of papers themselves. It's not groundbreaking, but it organizes the material clearly for that audience. I recommend putting it through peer review. A review like this can serve as a reference if the summaries hold up under scrutiny, and the topic is relevant enough to warrant it.

Referee Report

0 major / 0 minor

Summary. This review article outlines the theoretical models for minicharged particles (mCPs), their phenomenological signatures, existing constraints from indirect observations and direct accelerator searches, and the prospects for new searches at facilities such as the LHC, emphasizing that a substantial window in the mCP mass-mixing parameter space remains open.

Significance. The manuscript provides a useful synthesis of the field, which can serve as a reference for researchers interested in dark sector physics and mCP searches. By collating constraints and highlighting unexplored parameter space, it motivates ongoing and future experimental efforts. The connection to the EDGES anomaly adds relevance to current topics in cosmology and particle physics.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

0 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their positive assessment of our manuscript, their recognition of its utility as a synthesis of the field, and their recommendation to accept. We are pleased that the connection to the EDGES anomaly and the highlighting of unexplored parameter space were viewed as relevant.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

Review paper: no internal derivation chain present

full rationale

This is a review article that collates existing theoretical models, experimental constraints, and accelerator search prospects from the external literature. The central claim (substantial unexplored window in mCP parameter space at LHC energies) is a qualitative summary of cited prior bounds rather than a new quantitative prediction or derivation. No equations, fitted parameters, or self-citations function as load-bearing steps that reduce to the paper's own inputs. The paper is self-contained against external benchmarks and contains no self-definitional, fitted-input, or uniqueness-imported circularity.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 1 invented entities

The paper is a review and introduces no new free parameters, axioms, or invented entities of its own; it summarizes models from the literature where mCP mass and effective charge fraction (epsilon) appear as free parameters in BSM frameworks.

invented entities (1)

minicharged particles no independent evidence
purpose: hypothetical particles with effective charge much smaller than e to probe dark sectors and explain phenomena like the EDGES anomaly
These are postulated in various BSM models reviewed in the paper; no independent evidence is provided within this review itself.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5767 in / 1214 out tokens · 32278 ms · 2026-05-24T07:28:05.967911+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Lean theorems connected to this paper

Citations machine-checked in the Pith Canon. Every link opens the source theorem in the public Lean library.

IndisputableMonolith/Cost/FunctionalEquation.lean washburn_uniqueness_aczel unclear

?

unclear
Relation between the paper passage and the cited Recognition theorem.

L = LSM − 1/4 A′μν A′μν + i χ-bar (∂/ + i e′ A′ + i mχ) χ − κ/2 A′μν Bμν (Eq. 1); effective charge ε ≡ κ e′ cos θW / e
IndisputableMonolith/Foundation/AbsoluteFloorClosure.lean reality_from_one_distinction unclear

?

unclear
Relation between the paper passage and the cited Recognition theorem.

Constraints from Lamb shift, stellar energy loss, Neff, CMB anisotropies, EDGES anomaly

What do these tags mean?

matches: The paper's claim is directly supported by a theorem in the formal canon.
supports: The theorem supports part of the paper's argument, but the paper may add assumptions or extra steps.
extends: The paper goes beyond the formal theorem; the theorem is a base layer rather than the whole result.
uses: The paper appears to rely on the theorem as machinery.
contradicts: The paper's claim conflicts with a theorem or certificate in the canon.
unclear: Pith found a possible connection, but the passage is too broad, indirect, or ambiguous to say the theorem truly supports the claim.

Forward citations

Cited by 2 Pith papers

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score.

Resonant production of millicharged scalars in $k^2>0$ electromagnetic wave background
hep-ph 2025-10 unverdicted novelty 6.0

Resonant exponential growth of millicharged scalars in k²>0 electromagnetic waves is obtained by mapping the Klein-Gordon equation to the Mathieu equation, yielding new constraints on such particles.
Constraints on millicharged particles from thunderstorms on the Solar system planets
hep-ph 2026-03 unverdicted novelty 5.0

Planetary thunderstorms yield constraints on millicharged particles with the strongest bound q > 10^{-24} for bosonic mCPs from Saturn's layered clouds.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

116 extracted references · 116 canonical work pages · cited by 2 Pith papers · 4 internal anchors

[1]

Dirac, P.A.M.: Quantised singularities in the electromagnetic ﬁeld. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 133, 60–72 (1931)

work page 1931
[2]

Georgi, H., Glashow, S.L.: Unity of All Elementary-Particle Forces. Phys. Rev. Lett. 32(8), 438–441 (1974)

work page 1974
[3]

Pati, J.C., Salam, A.: Lepton number as the fourth “color”. Phys. Rev. D 10(1), 275–289 (1974). Erratum in Phys. Rev. D 11(3), 703 (1975)

work page 1974
[4]

Holdom, B.: Two U(1)’s and ǫ charge shifts. Phys. Lett. B 166(2), 196–198 (1986)

work page 1986
[5]

Bai, Y., Lee, S.J., Son, M., Ye, F.: Muon g − 2 from millicharged hidden conﬁning sector. J. High Energy Phys. 2021, 19 (2021)

work page 2021
[6]

Nature 557, 684–686 (2018)

Mu˜ noz, J.B., Loeb, A.: A small amount of mini-charged dark matter could cool the baryons in the early Universe. Nature 557, 684–686 (2018)

work page 2018
[7]

Berlin, A., Hooper, D., Krnjaic, G., McDermott, S.D.: Severely Constraining Dark-Matter Interpretations of the 21-cm Anomaly. Phys. Rev. Lett. 121(1), 011102 (2018)

work page 2018
[8]

Kovetz, E.D., Poulin, V., Gluscevic, V., et al.: Tighter limits on dark matter expla- nations of the anomalous EDGES 21 cm signal. Phys. Rev. D 98(10), 103529 (2018)

work page 2018
[9]

Liu, H., Outmezguine, N.J., Redigolo, D., Volansky, T.: Reviving millicharged dark matter for 21-cm cosmology. Phys. Rev. D 100(12), 123011 (2019)

work page 2019
[10]

Aboubrahim, A., Nath, P., Wang, Z.-Y.: A cosmologically consistent millicharged dark matter solution to the EDGES anomaly of possible string theory origin. J. High Energy Phys. 2021, 148 (2021)

work page 2021
[11]

: Search for Exclusive Free-Quark Produc- tion in e+e− Annihilation

Marini, A., Peruzzi, I., Piccolo, M., et al. : Search for Exclusive Free-Quark Produc- tion in e+e− Annihilation. Phys. Rev. Lett. 48(24), 1649–1652 (1982)

work page 1982
[12]

Golowich, E., Robinett, R.W.: Limits on millicharged matter from beam-dump experiments. Phys. Rev. D 35(1), 391–393 (1987)

work page 1987
[13]

Davidson, S., Campbell, B., Bailey, D.: Lim- its on particles of small electric charge. Phys. Rev. D 43(7), 2314–2321 (1991)

work page 1991
[14]

[OPAL Collaboration]: Search for heavy charged particles and for particles with anomalous charge in e +e− collisions at LEP

Akers, R., Alexander, G., Allison, J., et al. [OPAL Collaboration]: Search for heavy charged particles and for particles with anomalous charge in e +e− collisions at LEP. Z. Phys. C 67, 203–211 (1995)

work page 1995
[15]

: Search for Millicharged Particles at SLAC

Prinz, A.A., Baggs, R., Ballam, J., et al. : Search for Millicharged Particles at SLAC. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81(6), 1175–1178 (1998)

work page 1998
[16]

Davidson, S., Hannestad, S., Raﬀelt, G.: Updated bounds on milli-charged particles. J. High Energy Phys. 2000(05), 003 (2000)

work page 2000
[17]

Prinz, A.A.: The Search for Millicharged Particles at SLAC. Ph.D. thesis, Stan- ford University, Stanford, CA 94309 (March 2001). SLAC-R-569

work page 2001
[18]

EPL 76(5), 794–800 (2006)

Gies, H., Jaeckel, J., Ringwald, A.: Accel- erator cavities as a probe of millicharged particles. EPL 76(5), 794–800 (2006)

work page 2006
[19]

[CMS Collaboration]: Search for fractionally charged particles in pp colli- sions at √ s = 7 TeV

Chatrchyan, S., Khachatryan, V., Sirunyan, A.M., et al. [CMS Collaboration]: Search for fractionally charged particles in pp colli- sions at √ s = 7 TeV. Phys. Rev. D 87(9), 092008 (2013) . Erratum in Phys. Rev. D 106(9), 099903 (2022)

work page 2013
[20]

[CMS Collaboration]: Searches for long-lived charged particles in pp colli- sions at √ s = 7 and 8 TeV

Chatrchyan, S., Khachatryan, V., Sirunyan, A.M., et al. [CMS Collaboration]: Searches for long-lived charged particles in pp colli- sions at √ s = 7 and 8 TeV. J. High Energy Phys. 2013(07), 122 (2013) . Erratum in J. High Energy Phys. 2022(11), 149 (2022)

work page 2013
[21]

Magill, G., Plestid, R., Pospelov, M., Based on Springer Nature L ATEX template 16 Minicharged Particles at Accelerators: Progress and Prosp ects Tsai, Y.-D.: Millicharged particles in neu- trino experiments. Phys. Rev. Lett. 122(7), 071801 (2019)

work page 2019
[22]

[ArgoNeuT Collaboration]: Improved Limits on Millicharged Particles Using the ArgoNeuT Experiment at Fermilab

Acciarri, R., Adams, C., Asaadi, J., et al. [ArgoNeuT Collaboration]: Improved Limits on Millicharged Particles Using the ArgoNeuT Experiment at Fermilab. Phys. Rev. Lett. 124(13), 131801 (2020)

work page 2020
[23]

: Search for millicharged particles in proton- proton collisions at √ s = 13 TeV

Ball, A., Beauregard, G., Brooke, J., et al. : Search for millicharged particles in proton- proton collisions at √ s = 13 TeV. Phys. Rev. D 102(3), 032002 (2020)

work page 2020
[24]

Plestid, R., Takhistov, V., Tsai, Y.-D., et al.: Constraints on millicharged particles from cosmic-ray production. Phys. Rev. D 102(11), 115032 (2020)

work page 2020
[25]

SciPost Phys

Marocco, G., Sarkar, S.: Blast from the past: Constraints on the dark sector from the BEBC W A66 beam dump experiment. SciPost Phys. 10, 043 (2021)

work page 2021
[26]

Dobroliubov, M.I., Ignatiev, A.Y.: Mil- licharged particles. Phys. Rev. Lett. 65(6), 679–682 (1990)

work page 1990
[27]

Gl¨ uck, M., Rakshit, S., Reya, E.: Lamb shift contribution of very light charged particles. Phys. Rev. D 76(9), 091701 (2007)

work page 2007
[28]

Mohapatra, R.N., Rothstein, I.Z.: Astro- physical constraints on mini-charged parti- cles. Phys. Lett. B 247(4), 593–600 (1990)

work page 1990
[29]

Davidson, S., Peskin, M.: Astrophysical bounds on millicharged particles in mod- els with a paraphoton. Phys. Rev. D 49(4), 2114–2117 (1994)

work page 1994
[30]

University of Chicago Press, Chicago U.S.A

Raﬀelt, G.G.: Stars as Laboratories for Fundamental Physics: The Astro- physics of Neutrinos, Axions, and Other Weakly Interacting Particles. University of Chicago Press, Chicago U.S.A. (1996). https://inspirehep.net/literature/430034

work page 1996
[31]

JETP Lett

Dubovsky, S.L., Gorbunov, D.S., Rubtsov, G.I.: Narrowing the window for millicharged particles by CMB anisotropy. JETP Lett. 79, 1–5 (2004)

work page 2004
[32]

Melchiorri, A., Polosa, A.D., Strumia, A.: New bounds on millicharged particles from cosmology. Phys. Lett. B 650(5), 416–420 (2007)

work page 2007
[33]

millicharges

Berezhiani, Z., Lepidi, A.: Cosmological bounds on the “millicharges” of mirror particles. Phys. Lett. B 681(3), 276–281 (2009)

work page 2009
[34]

Brust, C., Kaplan, D.E., Walters, M.T.: New light species and the CMB. J. High Energy Phys. 2013(12), 58 (2013)

work page 2013
[35]

Vogel, H., Redondo, J.: Dark radiation con- straints on minicharged particles in models with a hidden photon. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2014(02), 029 (2014)

work page 2014
[36]

Haas, A., Hill, C.S., Izaguirre, E., Yavin, I.: Looking for milli-charged particles with a new experiment at the LHC. Phys. Lett. B 746, 117–120 (2015)

work page 2015
[37]

Kelly, K.J., Tsai, Y.-D.: Proton ﬁxed-target scintillation experiment to search for mil- licharged dark matter. Phys. Rev. D 100(1), 015043 (2019)

work page 2019
[38]

Kim, J.H., Hwang, I.S., Yoo, J.H.: Search for sub-millicharged particles at J-PARC. J. High Energy Phys. 2021(05), 31 (2021)

work page 2021
[39]

Ball, A., Brooke, J., Campagnari, C., et al.: Sensitivity to millicharged particles in future proton-proton collisions at the LHC with the milliQan detector. Phys. Rev. D 104(3), 032002 (2021)

work page 2021
[40]

Foroughi-Abari, S., Kling, F., Tsai, Y.-D.: Looking forward to millicharged dark sec- tors at the LHC. Phys. Rev. D 104(3), 035014 (2021)

work page 2021
[41]

[MoEDAL Collaboration]: MAPP Phase-1 Technical Proposal

Acharya, B., Alexandre, J., Benes, P., et al. [MoEDAL Collaboration]: MAPP Phase-1 Technical Proposal. Techni- cal report, CERN, Geneva (Nov. 2021). https://cds.cern.ch/record/2791293 Based on Springer Nature L ATEX template Minicharged Particles at Accelerators: Progress and Prosp ects 17

work page arXiv 2021
[42]

PhD thesis, University of Alberta (2021)

Staelens, M.A.: Physics From Beyond the Standard Model: Exotic Matter Searches at the LHC with the MoEDAL-MAPP Exper- iment. PhD thesis, University of Alberta (2021)

work page 2021
[43]

Izaguirre, E., Yavin, I.: New window to mil- licharged particles at the LHC. Phys. Rev. D 92(3), 035014 (2015)

work page 2015
[44]

Br¨ ummer, F., Jaeckel, J., Khoze, V.V.: Magnetic mixing — electric minicharges from magnetic monopoles. J. High Energy Phys. 2009(06), 037 (2009)

work page 2009
[45]

Wen, X.-G., Witten, E.: Electric and mag- netic charges in superstring models. Nucl. Phys. B 261, 651–677 (1985)

work page 1985
[46]

Abel, S.A., Jaeckel, J., Khoze, V.V., Ring- wald, A.: Illuminating the hidden sector of string theory by shining light through a magnetic ﬁeld. Phys. Lett. B 666(1), 66–70 (2008)

work page 2008
[47]

Batell, B., Gherghetta, T.: Localized U(1) gauge ﬁelds, millicharged particles, and holography. Phys. Rev. D 73(4), 045016 (2006)

work page 2006
[48]

Ignatiev, A.Y., Kuzmin, V.A., Shaposh- nikov, M.E.: Is the electric charge con- served? Phys. Lett. B 84(3), 315–318 (1979)

work page 1979
[49]

West, J.R.: Millicharged scalar ﬁelds, mas- sive photons and the breaking of SU (3)C × U (1)EM. Phys. Rev. D 99(7), 073009 (2019)

work page 2019
[50]

Adshead, P., Ralegankar, P., Shelton, J.: Dark radiation constraints on portal inter- actions with hidden sectors. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2022(09), 056 (2022)

work page 2022
[51]

Mangano, G., Miele, G., Pastor, S., Peloso, M.: A precision calculation of the eﬀective number of cosmological neutrinos. Phys. Lett. B 534(1–4) , 8–16 (2002)

work page 2002
[52]

Mangano, G., Miele, G., Pastor, S., et al.: Relic neutrino decoupling including ﬂavour oscillations. Nucl. Phys. B 729(1–2) , 221–234 (2005)

work page 2005
[53]

Astropart

Cyburt, R.H., Fields, B.D., Olive, K.A., Skillman, E.: New BBN limits on physics beyond the standard model from 4He. Astropart. Phys. 23(3), 313–323 (2005)

work page 2005
[54]

[Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2018 results

Aghanim, N., Akrami, Y., Ashdown, M., et al. [Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 641, 6 (2020) . Erratum in Astron. Astrophys. 652, C4 (2021)

work page 2018
[55]

[Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2013 results

Ade, P.A.R., Aghanim, N., Armitage- Caplan, C., et al. [Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2013 results. XVI. Cosmological parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 571, 16 (2014)

work page 2013
[56]

: Strongest model-independent bound on the lifetime of Dark Matter

Audren, B., Lesgourgues, J., Mangano, G., et al. : Strongest model-independent bound on the lifetime of Dark Matter. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2014(12), 028 (2014)

work page 2014
[57]

Ali-Ha ¨ ımoud, Y., Chluba, J., Kamionkowski, M.: Constraints on Dark Matter Interactions with Standard Model Particles from Cosmic Microwave Back- ground Spectral Distortions. Phys. Rev. Lett. 115, 071304 (2015)

work page 2015
[58]

McDermott, S.D., Yu, H.-B., Zurek, K.M.: Turning oﬀ the lights: How dark is dark matter? Phys. Rev. D 83, 063509 (2011)

work page 2011
[59]

[PandaX Collaboration]: Limits on the luminance of dark matter from xenon recoil data

Ning, X., Abdukerim, A., Bo, Z., et al. [PandaX Collaboration]: Limits on the luminance of dark matter from xenon recoil data. Nature 618, 47–50 (2023)

work page 2023
[60]

: Freeze-in production of FIMP dark matter

Hall, L.J., Jedamzik, K., March-Russell, J., et al. : Freeze-in production of FIMP dark matter. J. High Energy Phys. 2010, 80 (2010)

work page 2010
[61]

Chu, X., Hambye, T., Tytgat, M.H.G.: The four basic ways of creating dark matter through a portal. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2012(05), 034 (2012)

work page 2012
[62]

Dvorkin, C., Lin, T., Schutz, K.: Making Based on Springer Nature L ATEX template 18 Minicharged Particles at Accelerators: Progress and Prosp ects dark matter out of light: Freeze-in from plasma eﬀects. Phys. Rev. D 99(11), 115009 (2019). Erratum in Phys. Rev. D 105(11), 119901 (2022)

work page 2019
[63]

Bogorad, Z., Toro, N.: Ultralight mil- licharged dark matter via misalignment. J. High Energy Phys. 2022, 35 (2022)

work page 2022
[64]

Dolgov, A.D., Dubovsky, S.L., Rubtsov, G.I., Tkachev, I.I.: Constraints on mil- licharged particles from Planck data. Phys. Rev. D 88(11), 117701 (2013)

work page 2013
[65]

Boddy, K.K., Gluscevic, V., Poulin, V., et al.: Critical assessment of CMB limits on dark matter-baryon scattering: New treat- ment of the relative bulk velocity. Phys. Rev. D 98(12), 123506 (2018)

work page 2018
[66]

[Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2015 results — XIII

Ade, P.A.R., Aghanim, N., Arnaud, M., et al. [Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2015 results — XIII. Cosmological parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 594, 13 (2016)

work page 2015
[67]

[Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2015 results — XI

Aghanim, N., Arnaud, M., Ashdown, M., et al. [Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2015 results — XI. CMB power spectra, like- lihoods, and robustness of parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 594, 11 (2016)

work page 2015
[68]

Emken, T., Essig, R., Kouvaris, C., Shola- purkar, M.: Direct detection of strongly interacting sub-GeV dark matter via elec- tron recoils. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2019(09), 070 (2019)

work page 2019
[69]

Erickcek, A.L., Steinhardt, P.J., McCam- mon, D., McGuire, P.C.: Constraints on the interactions between dark matter and baryons from the x-ray quantum calorime- try experiment. Phys. Rev. D 76(4), 042007 (2007)

work page 2007
[70]

Rich, J., Rocchia, R., Spiro, M.: A search for strongly interacting dark matter. Phys. Lett. B 194(1), 173–176 (1987)

work page 1987
[71]

Nature 555, 67–70 (2018)

Bowman, J.D., Rogers, A.E.E., Monsalve, R.A., et al.: An absorption proﬁle centred at 78 megahertz in the sky-averaged spectrum. Nature 555, 67–70 (2018)

work page 2018
[72]

IEEE Trans

Rees, J.R.: The Positron-Electron Project- PEP. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 24(3), 1836–1841 (1977)

work page 1977
[73]

: The neutrino beam dump experiment at Fermilab (E613)

Ball, R., Coﬃn, C.T., Gustafson, H.R., et al. : The neutrino beam dump experiment at Fermilab (E613). eConf C801002, 172–174 (1980). https://inspirehep.net/literature/10641

work page 1980
[74]

Myers, S., Picasso, E.: The LEP Collider. Sci. Am. 263(1), 54–61 (1990)

work page 1990
[75]

Rothenberg, A.F.: A Search for Unknown Sources of Neutrino-Like Particles. Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 (May 1972). SLAC-R-147

work page 1972
[76]

Hearty, C., Rothberg, J.E., Young, K.K., et al.: New results on single-photon production at √ s = 29 GeV. Phys. Rev. Lett. 58(17), 1711–1714 (1987)

work page 1987
[77]

: Achievement of 35 MV/m in the supercon- ducting nine-cell cavities for TESLA

Lilje, L., Kako, E., Kostin, D., et al. : Achievement of 35 MV/m in the supercon- ducting nine-cell cavities for TESLA. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A 524(1), 1–12 (2004)

work page 2004
[78]

[LSND Collaboration]: Mea- surement of electron-neutrino electron elas- tic scattering

Auerbach, L.B., Burman, R.L., Caldwell, D.O., et al. [LSND Collaboration]: Mea- surement of electron-neutrino electron elas- tic scattering. Phys. Rev. D 63(11), 112001 (2001)

work page 2001
[79]

[MiniBooNE Collaboration]: Signiﬁcant Excess of Electronlike Events in the MiniBooNE Short-Baseline Neu- trino Experiment

Aguilar-Arevalo, A.A., Brown, B.C., Bugel, L., et al. [MiniBooNE Collaboration]: Signiﬁcant Excess of Electronlike Events in the MiniBooNE Short-Baseline Neu- trino Experiment. Phys. Rev. Lett. 121(22), 221801 (2018)

work page 2018
[80]

[MiniBooNE-DM Col- laboration]: Dark matter search in nucleon, pion, and electron channels from a proton beam dump with MiniBooNE

Aguilar-Arevalo, A.A., Backﬁsh, M., Bashyal, A., et al. [MiniBooNE-DM Col- laboration]: Dark matter search in nucleon, pion, and electron channels from a proton beam dump with MiniBooNE. Phys. Rev. D 98(11), 112004 (2018)

work page 2018

Showing first 80 references.

[1] [1]

Dirac, P.A.M.: Quantised singularities in the electromagnetic ﬁeld. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 133, 60–72 (1931)

work page 1931

[2] [2]

Georgi, H., Glashow, S.L.: Unity of All Elementary-Particle Forces. Phys. Rev. Lett. 32(8), 438–441 (1974)

work page 1974

[3] [3]

Pati, J.C., Salam, A.: Lepton number as the fourth “color”. Phys. Rev. D 10(1), 275–289 (1974). Erratum in Phys. Rev. D 11(3), 703 (1975)

work page 1974

[4] [4]

Holdom, B.: Two U(1)’s and ǫ charge shifts. Phys. Lett. B 166(2), 196–198 (1986)

work page 1986

[5] [5]

Bai, Y., Lee, S.J., Son, M., Ye, F.: Muon g − 2 from millicharged hidden conﬁning sector. J. High Energy Phys. 2021, 19 (2021)

work page 2021

[6] [6]

Nature 557, 684–686 (2018)

Mu˜ noz, J.B., Loeb, A.: A small amount of mini-charged dark matter could cool the baryons in the early Universe. Nature 557, 684–686 (2018)

work page 2018

[7] [7]

Berlin, A., Hooper, D., Krnjaic, G., McDermott, S.D.: Severely Constraining Dark-Matter Interpretations of the 21-cm Anomaly. Phys. Rev. Lett. 121(1), 011102 (2018)

work page 2018

[8] [8]

Kovetz, E.D., Poulin, V., Gluscevic, V., et al.: Tighter limits on dark matter expla- nations of the anomalous EDGES 21 cm signal. Phys. Rev. D 98(10), 103529 (2018)

work page 2018

[9] [9]

Liu, H., Outmezguine, N.J., Redigolo, D., Volansky, T.: Reviving millicharged dark matter for 21-cm cosmology. Phys. Rev. D 100(12), 123011 (2019)

work page 2019

[10] [10]

Aboubrahim, A., Nath, P., Wang, Z.-Y.: A cosmologically consistent millicharged dark matter solution to the EDGES anomaly of possible string theory origin. J. High Energy Phys. 2021, 148 (2021)

work page 2021

[11] [11]

: Search for Exclusive Free-Quark Produc- tion in e+e− Annihilation

Marini, A., Peruzzi, I., Piccolo, M., et al. : Search for Exclusive Free-Quark Produc- tion in e+e− Annihilation. Phys. Rev. Lett. 48(24), 1649–1652 (1982)

work page 1982

[12] [12]

Golowich, E., Robinett, R.W.: Limits on millicharged matter from beam-dump experiments. Phys. Rev. D 35(1), 391–393 (1987)

work page 1987

[13] [13]

Davidson, S., Campbell, B., Bailey, D.: Lim- its on particles of small electric charge. Phys. Rev. D 43(7), 2314–2321 (1991)

work page 1991

[14] [14]

[OPAL Collaboration]: Search for heavy charged particles and for particles with anomalous charge in e +e− collisions at LEP

Akers, R., Alexander, G., Allison, J., et al. [OPAL Collaboration]: Search for heavy charged particles and for particles with anomalous charge in e +e− collisions at LEP. Z. Phys. C 67, 203–211 (1995)

work page 1995

[15] [15]

: Search for Millicharged Particles at SLAC

Prinz, A.A., Baggs, R., Ballam, J., et al. : Search for Millicharged Particles at SLAC. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81(6), 1175–1178 (1998)

work page 1998

[16] [16]

Davidson, S., Hannestad, S., Raﬀelt, G.: Updated bounds on milli-charged particles. J. High Energy Phys. 2000(05), 003 (2000)

work page 2000

[17] [17]

Prinz, A.A.: The Search for Millicharged Particles at SLAC. Ph.D. thesis, Stan- ford University, Stanford, CA 94309 (March 2001). SLAC-R-569

work page 2001

[18] [18]

EPL 76(5), 794–800 (2006)

Gies, H., Jaeckel, J., Ringwald, A.: Accel- erator cavities as a probe of millicharged particles. EPL 76(5), 794–800 (2006)

work page 2006

[19] [19]

[CMS Collaboration]: Search for fractionally charged particles in pp colli- sions at √ s = 7 TeV

Chatrchyan, S., Khachatryan, V., Sirunyan, A.M., et al. [CMS Collaboration]: Search for fractionally charged particles in pp colli- sions at √ s = 7 TeV. Phys. Rev. D 87(9), 092008 (2013) . Erratum in Phys. Rev. D 106(9), 099903 (2022)

work page 2013

[20] [20]

[CMS Collaboration]: Searches for long-lived charged particles in pp colli- sions at √ s = 7 and 8 TeV

Chatrchyan, S., Khachatryan, V., Sirunyan, A.M., et al. [CMS Collaboration]: Searches for long-lived charged particles in pp colli- sions at √ s = 7 and 8 TeV. J. High Energy Phys. 2013(07), 122 (2013) . Erratum in J. High Energy Phys. 2022(11), 149 (2022)

work page 2013

[21] [21]

Magill, G., Plestid, R., Pospelov, M., Based on Springer Nature L ATEX template 16 Minicharged Particles at Accelerators: Progress and Prosp ects Tsai, Y.-D.: Millicharged particles in neu- trino experiments. Phys. Rev. Lett. 122(7), 071801 (2019)

work page 2019

[22] [22]

[ArgoNeuT Collaboration]: Improved Limits on Millicharged Particles Using the ArgoNeuT Experiment at Fermilab

Acciarri, R., Adams, C., Asaadi, J., et al. [ArgoNeuT Collaboration]: Improved Limits on Millicharged Particles Using the ArgoNeuT Experiment at Fermilab. Phys. Rev. Lett. 124(13), 131801 (2020)

work page 2020

[23] [23]

: Search for millicharged particles in proton- proton collisions at √ s = 13 TeV

Ball, A., Beauregard, G., Brooke, J., et al. : Search for millicharged particles in proton- proton collisions at √ s = 13 TeV. Phys. Rev. D 102(3), 032002 (2020)

work page 2020

[24] [24]

Plestid, R., Takhistov, V., Tsai, Y.-D., et al.: Constraints on millicharged particles from cosmic-ray production. Phys. Rev. D 102(11), 115032 (2020)

work page 2020

[25] [25]

SciPost Phys

Marocco, G., Sarkar, S.: Blast from the past: Constraints on the dark sector from the BEBC W A66 beam dump experiment. SciPost Phys. 10, 043 (2021)

work page 2021

[26] [26]

Dobroliubov, M.I., Ignatiev, A.Y.: Mil- licharged particles. Phys. Rev. Lett. 65(6), 679–682 (1990)

work page 1990

[27] [27]

Gl¨ uck, M., Rakshit, S., Reya, E.: Lamb shift contribution of very light charged particles. Phys. Rev. D 76(9), 091701 (2007)

work page 2007

[28] [28]

Mohapatra, R.N., Rothstein, I.Z.: Astro- physical constraints on mini-charged parti- cles. Phys. Lett. B 247(4), 593–600 (1990)

work page 1990

[29] [29]

Davidson, S., Peskin, M.: Astrophysical bounds on millicharged particles in mod- els with a paraphoton. Phys. Rev. D 49(4), 2114–2117 (1994)

work page 1994

[30] [30]

University of Chicago Press, Chicago U.S.A

Raﬀelt, G.G.: Stars as Laboratories for Fundamental Physics: The Astro- physics of Neutrinos, Axions, and Other Weakly Interacting Particles. University of Chicago Press, Chicago U.S.A. (1996). https://inspirehep.net/literature/430034

work page 1996

[31] [31]

JETP Lett

Dubovsky, S.L., Gorbunov, D.S., Rubtsov, G.I.: Narrowing the window for millicharged particles by CMB anisotropy. JETP Lett. 79, 1–5 (2004)

work page 2004

[32] [32]

Melchiorri, A., Polosa, A.D., Strumia, A.: New bounds on millicharged particles from cosmology. Phys. Lett. B 650(5), 416–420 (2007)

work page 2007

[33] [33]

millicharges

Berezhiani, Z., Lepidi, A.: Cosmological bounds on the “millicharges” of mirror particles. Phys. Lett. B 681(3), 276–281 (2009)

work page 2009

[34] [34]

Brust, C., Kaplan, D.E., Walters, M.T.: New light species and the CMB. J. High Energy Phys. 2013(12), 58 (2013)

work page 2013

[35] [35]

Vogel, H., Redondo, J.: Dark radiation con- straints on minicharged particles in models with a hidden photon. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2014(02), 029 (2014)

work page 2014

[36] [36]

Haas, A., Hill, C.S., Izaguirre, E., Yavin, I.: Looking for milli-charged particles with a new experiment at the LHC. Phys. Lett. B 746, 117–120 (2015)

work page 2015

[37] [37]

Kelly, K.J., Tsai, Y.-D.: Proton ﬁxed-target scintillation experiment to search for mil- licharged dark matter. Phys. Rev. D 100(1), 015043 (2019)

work page 2019

[38] [38]

Kim, J.H., Hwang, I.S., Yoo, J.H.: Search for sub-millicharged particles at J-PARC. J. High Energy Phys. 2021(05), 31 (2021)

work page 2021

[39] [39]

Ball, A., Brooke, J., Campagnari, C., et al.: Sensitivity to millicharged particles in future proton-proton collisions at the LHC with the milliQan detector. Phys. Rev. D 104(3), 032002 (2021)

work page 2021

[40] [40]

Foroughi-Abari, S., Kling, F., Tsai, Y.-D.: Looking forward to millicharged dark sec- tors at the LHC. Phys. Rev. D 104(3), 035014 (2021)

work page 2021

[41] [41]

[MoEDAL Collaboration]: MAPP Phase-1 Technical Proposal

Acharya, B., Alexandre, J., Benes, P., et al. [MoEDAL Collaboration]: MAPP Phase-1 Technical Proposal. Techni- cal report, CERN, Geneva (Nov. 2021). https://cds.cern.ch/record/2791293 Based on Springer Nature L ATEX template Minicharged Particles at Accelerators: Progress and Prosp ects 17

work page arXiv 2021

[42] [42]

PhD thesis, University of Alberta (2021)

Staelens, M.A.: Physics From Beyond the Standard Model: Exotic Matter Searches at the LHC with the MoEDAL-MAPP Exper- iment. PhD thesis, University of Alberta (2021)

work page 2021

[43] [43]

Izaguirre, E., Yavin, I.: New window to mil- licharged particles at the LHC. Phys. Rev. D 92(3), 035014 (2015)

work page 2015

[44] [44]

Br¨ ummer, F., Jaeckel, J., Khoze, V.V.: Magnetic mixing — electric minicharges from magnetic monopoles. J. High Energy Phys. 2009(06), 037 (2009)

work page 2009

[45] [45]

Wen, X.-G., Witten, E.: Electric and mag- netic charges in superstring models. Nucl. Phys. B 261, 651–677 (1985)

work page 1985

[46] [46]

Abel, S.A., Jaeckel, J., Khoze, V.V., Ring- wald, A.: Illuminating the hidden sector of string theory by shining light through a magnetic ﬁeld. Phys. Lett. B 666(1), 66–70 (2008)

work page 2008

[47] [47]

Batell, B., Gherghetta, T.: Localized U(1) gauge ﬁelds, millicharged particles, and holography. Phys. Rev. D 73(4), 045016 (2006)

work page 2006

[48] [48]

Ignatiev, A.Y., Kuzmin, V.A., Shaposh- nikov, M.E.: Is the electric charge con- served? Phys. Lett. B 84(3), 315–318 (1979)

work page 1979

[49] [49]

West, J.R.: Millicharged scalar ﬁelds, mas- sive photons and the breaking of SU (3)C × U (1)EM. Phys. Rev. D 99(7), 073009 (2019)

work page 2019

[50] [50]

Adshead, P., Ralegankar, P., Shelton, J.: Dark radiation constraints on portal inter- actions with hidden sectors. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2022(09), 056 (2022)

work page 2022

[51] [51]

Mangano, G., Miele, G., Pastor, S., Peloso, M.: A precision calculation of the eﬀective number of cosmological neutrinos. Phys. Lett. B 534(1–4) , 8–16 (2002)

work page 2002

[52] [52]

Mangano, G., Miele, G., Pastor, S., et al.: Relic neutrino decoupling including ﬂavour oscillations. Nucl. Phys. B 729(1–2) , 221–234 (2005)

work page 2005

[53] [53]

Astropart

Cyburt, R.H., Fields, B.D., Olive, K.A., Skillman, E.: New BBN limits on physics beyond the standard model from 4He. Astropart. Phys. 23(3), 313–323 (2005)

work page 2005

[54] [54]

[Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2018 results

Aghanim, N., Akrami, Y., Ashdown, M., et al. [Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 641, 6 (2020) . Erratum in Astron. Astrophys. 652, C4 (2021)

work page 2018

[55] [55]

[Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2013 results

Ade, P.A.R., Aghanim, N., Armitage- Caplan, C., et al. [Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2013 results. XVI. Cosmological parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 571, 16 (2014)

work page 2013

[56] [56]

: Strongest model-independent bound on the lifetime of Dark Matter

Audren, B., Lesgourgues, J., Mangano, G., et al. : Strongest model-independent bound on the lifetime of Dark Matter. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2014(12), 028 (2014)

work page 2014

[57] [57]

Ali-Ha ¨ ımoud, Y., Chluba, J., Kamionkowski, M.: Constraints on Dark Matter Interactions with Standard Model Particles from Cosmic Microwave Back- ground Spectral Distortions. Phys. Rev. Lett. 115, 071304 (2015)

work page 2015

[58] [58]

McDermott, S.D., Yu, H.-B., Zurek, K.M.: Turning oﬀ the lights: How dark is dark matter? Phys. Rev. D 83, 063509 (2011)

work page 2011

[59] [59]

[PandaX Collaboration]: Limits on the luminance of dark matter from xenon recoil data

Ning, X., Abdukerim, A., Bo, Z., et al. [PandaX Collaboration]: Limits on the luminance of dark matter from xenon recoil data. Nature 618, 47–50 (2023)

work page 2023

[60] [60]

: Freeze-in production of FIMP dark matter

Hall, L.J., Jedamzik, K., March-Russell, J., et al. : Freeze-in production of FIMP dark matter. J. High Energy Phys. 2010, 80 (2010)

work page 2010

[61] [61]

Chu, X., Hambye, T., Tytgat, M.H.G.: The four basic ways of creating dark matter through a portal. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2012(05), 034 (2012)

work page 2012

[62] [62]

Dvorkin, C., Lin, T., Schutz, K.: Making Based on Springer Nature L ATEX template 18 Minicharged Particles at Accelerators: Progress and Prosp ects dark matter out of light: Freeze-in from plasma eﬀects. Phys. Rev. D 99(11), 115009 (2019). Erratum in Phys. Rev. D 105(11), 119901 (2022)

work page 2019

[63] [63]

Bogorad, Z., Toro, N.: Ultralight mil- licharged dark matter via misalignment. J. High Energy Phys. 2022, 35 (2022)

work page 2022

[64] [64]

Dolgov, A.D., Dubovsky, S.L., Rubtsov, G.I., Tkachev, I.I.: Constraints on mil- licharged particles from Planck data. Phys. Rev. D 88(11), 117701 (2013)

work page 2013

[65] [65]

Boddy, K.K., Gluscevic, V., Poulin, V., et al.: Critical assessment of CMB limits on dark matter-baryon scattering: New treat- ment of the relative bulk velocity. Phys. Rev. D 98(12), 123506 (2018)

work page 2018

[66] [66]

[Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2015 results — XIII

Ade, P.A.R., Aghanim, N., Arnaud, M., et al. [Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2015 results — XIII. Cosmological parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 594, 13 (2016)

work page 2015

[67] [67]

[Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2015 results — XI

Aghanim, N., Arnaud, M., Ashdown, M., et al. [Planck Collaboration]: Planck 2015 results — XI. CMB power spectra, like- lihoods, and robustness of parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 594, 11 (2016)

work page 2015

[68] [68]

Emken, T., Essig, R., Kouvaris, C., Shola- purkar, M.: Direct detection of strongly interacting sub-GeV dark matter via elec- tron recoils. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2019(09), 070 (2019)

work page 2019

[69] [69]

Erickcek, A.L., Steinhardt, P.J., McCam- mon, D., McGuire, P.C.: Constraints on the interactions between dark matter and baryons from the x-ray quantum calorime- try experiment. Phys. Rev. D 76(4), 042007 (2007)

work page 2007

[70] [70]

Rich, J., Rocchia, R., Spiro, M.: A search for strongly interacting dark matter. Phys. Lett. B 194(1), 173–176 (1987)

work page 1987

[71] [71]

Nature 555, 67–70 (2018)

Bowman, J.D., Rogers, A.E.E., Monsalve, R.A., et al.: An absorption proﬁle centred at 78 megahertz in the sky-averaged spectrum. Nature 555, 67–70 (2018)

work page 2018

[72] [72]

IEEE Trans

Rees, J.R.: The Positron-Electron Project- PEP. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 24(3), 1836–1841 (1977)

work page 1977

[73] [73]

: The neutrino beam dump experiment at Fermilab (E613)

Ball, R., Coﬃn, C.T., Gustafson, H.R., et al. : The neutrino beam dump experiment at Fermilab (E613). eConf C801002, 172–174 (1980). https://inspirehep.net/literature/10641

work page 1980

[74] [74]

Myers, S., Picasso, E.: The LEP Collider. Sci. Am. 263(1), 54–61 (1990)

work page 1990

[75] [75]

Rothenberg, A.F.: A Search for Unknown Sources of Neutrino-Like Particles. Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 (May 1972). SLAC-R-147

work page 1972

[76] [76]

Hearty, C., Rothberg, J.E., Young, K.K., et al.: New results on single-photon production at √ s = 29 GeV. Phys. Rev. Lett. 58(17), 1711–1714 (1987)

work page 1987

[77] [77]

: Achievement of 35 MV/m in the supercon- ducting nine-cell cavities for TESLA

Lilje, L., Kako, E., Kostin, D., et al. : Achievement of 35 MV/m in the supercon- ducting nine-cell cavities for TESLA. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A 524(1), 1–12 (2004)

work page 2004

[78] [78]

[LSND Collaboration]: Mea- surement of electron-neutrino electron elas- tic scattering

Auerbach, L.B., Burman, R.L., Caldwell, D.O., et al. [LSND Collaboration]: Mea- surement of electron-neutrino electron elas- tic scattering. Phys. Rev. D 63(11), 112001 (2001)

work page 2001

[79] [79]

[MiniBooNE Collaboration]: Signiﬁcant Excess of Electronlike Events in the MiniBooNE Short-Baseline Neu- trino Experiment

Aguilar-Arevalo, A.A., Brown, B.C., Bugel, L., et al. [MiniBooNE Collaboration]: Signiﬁcant Excess of Electronlike Events in the MiniBooNE Short-Baseline Neu- trino Experiment. Phys. Rev. Lett. 121(22), 221801 (2018)

work page 2018

[80] [80]

[MiniBooNE-DM Col- laboration]: Dark matter search in nucleon, pion, and electron channels from a proton beam dump with MiniBooNE

Aguilar-Arevalo, A.A., Backﬁsh, M., Bashyal, A., et al. [MiniBooNE-DM Col- laboration]: Dark matter search in nucleon, pion, and electron channels from a proton beam dump with MiniBooNE. Phys. Rev. D 98(11), 112004 (2018)

work page 2018