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A dominant population of optically invisible massive galaxies in the early Universe

T0 review · 3 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-14 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read A population of massive dusty galaxies at $z>3$, invisible in optical and near-infrared light, represents the bulk of massive galaxies in the early Universe and dominates their star formation.

desk verdict A solid observational advance that defines the H-dropout population, but the z>3 verdict rests on photometric redshifts the authors themselves call uncertain; cite it, read it, and wait for spectroscopy. read the letter →

arxiv 1908.02372 v1 pith:HPXJC7DF submitted 2019-08-06 astro-ph.GA astro-ph.CO

T. Wang , C. Schreiber , C. Elbaz , Y. Yoshimura , K. Kohno , X. Shu , Y. Yamaguchi , M. Pannella
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M. Franco J. Huang C.F. Lim W. H. Wang
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GAastro-ph.CO
keywords dustystar-forminggalaxiesH-dropoutsmassiveathighredshiftcosmicstar-formationhistorysubmillimeterobservationsLyman-breakgalaxyformationz>3
open problems Dark Matter
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper argues that the most massive galaxies in the first two billion years after the Big Bang (redshifts $z>3$) have been systematically missed by surveys that select galaxies in rest-frame ultraviolet light. It identifies a population of 39 galaxies that are bright at 4.5 microns but invisible in the deepest near-infrared H-band imaging, and detects them in 870-micron submillimeter continuum. These objects have a space density of about $2\times10^{-5}$ per cubic megaparsec—two orders of magnitude higher than extreme starbursts—and star-formation rates near 200 solar masses per year, making them plausible 'bulk' massive galaxies rather than rare outliers. The paper concludes that they contribute ten times more star-formation-rate density than equally massive ultraviolet-bright galaxies at $z>3$, that they live in the most massive dark-matter halos of their epoch, and that their abundance challenges current models of massive-galaxy formation.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is the H-dropout: a galaxy detected at 4.5 microns but not in deep H-band imaging, which selects red, potentially high-redshift massive galaxies. The argument is carried by 870-micron submillimeter detections of 39 such objects; dust continuum at this wavelength directly traces obscured star formation, and ratios such as 870-to-450 micron and radio-to-870 micron provide redshift constraints that support $z>3$. Stacking the far-infrared photometry fixes the mean dust temperature and infrared luminosity, converting individual faint detections into a reliable population-level spectral energy distribution. Finally, the angular cross-correlation of the H-dropouts with surrounding H-band-selected galaxies provides the galaxy bias from which the dark-matter halo mass is inferred.

What would settle it

Measure spectroscopic redshifts for a random, statistically meaningful subset of the 39 submillimeter-detected H-dropouts, using submillimeter lines such as [C II] 158-micron or CO, or near-infrared spectroscopy. If more than about a quarter of the sample turns out to lie at $z<3$, the $z>3$ space density and star-formation-rate density would fall below those of equally massive ultraviolet-bright galaxies, and the claim that H-dropouts dominate the massive end at $z>3$ would be falsified.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

Using short 870-micron observations of H-dropouts—galaxies selected to be bright in 4.5-micron light and undetected in near-infrared H-band imaging deeper than $H\approx27$ mag—the paper detects 39 of 63 candidates. Stacking their infrared spectral energy distributions yields a median redshift of $z\approx4$, a median stellar mass of $10^{10.6}\,M_\odot$, a dust temperature of $36.7\pm2.1$ K, and an infrared luminosity $L_{\mathrm{IR}}=2.2\pm0.3\times10^{12}\,L_\odot$, typical of massive star-forming galaxies at that redshift. The 870-micron fluxes (0.6–8 mJy, median 1.6 mJy) imply star-formation rates of roughly $200\,M_\odot\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}$. After correcting for incompleteness, the space density is about $2\times10^{-5}\,\mathrm{Mpc}^{-3}$, and the star-formation-rate density of these galaxies is about 10 times that of equally massive Lyman-break galaxies. Cross-correlating the sample with H-band-selected neighbors gives a bias $b=8.4\pm1.5$, corresponding to halos of mass $10^{13\pm0.3}\,h^{-1}M_\odot$ at $z=4$, so the paper identifies them as the likely ancestors of the largest ellipticals in today's groups and clusters. Its central claim is that the majority of the most massive galaxies at $z>3$ have been missed by Lyman-break selection and are optically dark.

Load-bearing premise

The load-bearing premise is that the photometric redshifts place the 39 submillimeter-detected H-dropouts at $z>3$—a premise the paper itself calls 'admittedly uncertain'—so if many of these galaxies are actually at $z\approx2$, the derived space density, star-formation-rate density, and halo masses at $z>3$ would drop and the central claim would collapse.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • The cosmic star-formation-rate density at $z>3$ includes a large dusty component invisible to ultraviolet surveys; massive H-dropouts alone contribute roughly ten times the star-formation-rate density of equally massive Lyman-break galaxies.
  • Their space density is comparable to that of the most massive quiescent galaxies at $z\sim3$, giving the early Universe enough massive progenitors to explain the rapid appearance of quiescent ellipticals.
  • With halo masses around $10^{13}\,M_\odot$ at $z\approx4$, these galaxies are the natural ancestors of the giant ellipticals that now anchor groups and clusters.
  • Current semi-analytic models underpredict the abundance of such galaxies by one to two orders of magnitude, so if the measurement stands, galaxy formation models need revision.
  • Spectroscopic follow-up of the entire H-dropout population—particularly at mid-infrared wavelengths—would confirm the redshifts and sharpen all derived densities.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Editorial inference: if the photometric redshifts are systematically overestimated, the derived space density and star-formation-rate density at $z>3$ would shrink; measuring [C II] 158-micron or CO redshifts for a random subset of the 39 detections would test this directly.
  • Editorial inference: the completeness correction for chance superpositions reaches a factor of about two, so the true space density could be even higher; deeper submillimeter imaging would reveal whether fainter H-dropouts add to the census.
  • Editorial inference: extending the same H-dropout color selection to wider, shallower surveys would show whether the claimed dominance holds beyond the three deep fields analyzed here.
  • Editorial inference: a substantial contamination by $z\sim2$ dusty galaxies would move the population out of the 'early universe' window and weaken the challenge to early galaxy formation; the comparison with equally massive ultraviolet-bright galaxies at $z>3$ would then need to be renormalized.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 5 minor

Summary. The Letter reports ALMA 870 micron continuum observations of 63 H-dropouts (IRAC [4.5]<24, H-band undetected to ~27 mag) in three CANDELS fields, detecting 39 sources at S/N>4 with fluxes 0.6-8 mJy. The authors interpret these ALMA-detected H-dropouts as massive dusty star-forming galaxies at z>3 on the basis of photometric redshifts (median z~4), two new Ly-alpha spectroscopic redshifts (z=3.097 and z=5.113), one literature source at z=3.709, and far-infrared/radio color arguments. They derive a space density of ~2e-5 Mpc^-3, a star-formation-rate density about ten times that of equally massive LBGs, and a clustering bias implying Mh~1e13 Msun, concluding that H-dropouts represent the bulk population of massive galaxies missed by LBG selection at z>3. The ALMA data are clean and the analysis is careful, but the z>3 assignment for most of the sample rests on photometric redshifts that the authors themselves call 'admittedly uncertain.'

Significance. If the z>3 interpretation is correct, this is a significant result: it identifies a sizable population of massive, dusty galaxies missed by UV selection, raises the inferred cosmic SFR density at z~4-6, and provides a quantitative target for galaxy formation models. The paper's strengths include the clean ALMA detections with positional agreement to IRAC, the stacked far-infrared SED giving L_IR=2.2e12 Lsun and T_dust=36.7 K, the direct comparison with external samples (ZFOURGE, ALESS, UV luminosity functions), and public code/data availability. However, the headline abundance, SFRD, and halo mass are all conditional on the photometric-redshift distribution, and the authors' own text and Extended Data Table 2 show that individual redshifts are highly uncertain, with some best-fit values below z=3. The significance is therefore not yet fully established.

major comments (3)
  1. [Methods §2.2 and Extended Data Table 2] The z>3 assignment for most of the 39 ALMA-detected H-dropouts is the load-bearing assumption for the paper's central claims, yet only three spectroscopic redshifts are available (two new Ly-alpha detections and one literature source at z=3.709). EAzY was run with the full template set including old-and-dusty templates and without a magnitude prior, and Extended Data Table 2 lists several ALMA-detected objects with best-fit z_phot below 3, including GDS-43215 at z=2.91, UDS-34637 at z=2.84, UDS-37649 at z=2.82, and COS-31483 at z=2.97, with many individual 68% intervals spanning dz~1-3. Because the space density, star-formation-rate density, and halo mass estimates all scale with the assumption that essentially all sources are at z>3, the authors should quantify the expected contamination from z~2 dusty galaxies with similar H-[4.5] colors and show the main results with those sources removed or marginalized over the full photometric-redshift probability distributions. The statement in the main text that 'all the available data points to the ALMA-detected H-dropouts being massive, dusty star-forming galaxies at z>3' is too strong given the large individual redshift uncertainties.
  2. [Extended Data Fig. 4 and Methods §1.4] The far-infrared and radio color diagnostics invoked in support of z>3 do not directly measure the contamination fraction of the full sample. The S870/S450 and S1.4/S870 colors are available only for the CANDELS-COSMOS subset, are template dependent (the model lines in Extended Data Fig. 4 depend on the assumed infrared SED), and for non-detections only upper or lower limits enter the comparison. The comparison between z_FIR and z_opt in Extended Data Fig. 4c shows substantial dispersion, so these colors can indicate that the population is dusty and high-redshift on average but cannot certify individual z>3 membership for the 39 sources. The manuscript should state this limitation explicitly and treat the far-infrared colors as supporting rather than confirming evidence.
  3. [Methods §2.3 and Fig. 4] The clustering measurement assumes that the 39 ALMA-detected H-dropouts occupy the same cosmic volume as the H-selected galaxy sample at 3.5<z<5.5. If a non-negligible fraction of the sample is actually at z~2, the cross-correlation amplitude, and hence the inferred bias b=8.4±1.5 and halo mass Mh~1e13 h^-1 Msun, would be diluted and would not describe z>3 host halos. The authors should either restrict the clustering analysis to sources with more secure z>3 membership or present the halo-mass result as conditional on the photometric-redshift distribution rather than as an independent confirmation of the z>3 interpretation.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Fig. 3 caption] There are typos in the caption: 'Red filed circles' should be 'Red filled circles', and 'Purple fileld pentagons' should be 'Purple filled pentagons'.
  2. [Main text, paragraph 6] The phrase 'more than than 80%' should be 'more than 80%'.
  3. [Methods §1.3] The text refers to 'CANDLES-COSMOS'; the survey name should be 'CANDELS-COSMOS'.
  4. [Extended Data Fig. 2 callout] The main text cites 'Extended Data Figure 2' for the redshift and stellar mass distributions of ALMA-detected versus undetected H-dropouts; the relevant panel is Extended Data Fig. 2b, so the callout should be made panel-specific.
  5. [Methods §2.2] The sentence 'The prior on the observed magnitudes was not used' is a nonstandard modeling choice for EAzY and deserves a brief justification, since using or not using the prior can shift the photometric redshift distribution.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 1.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the core abundance, SFRD, and halo-mass results are measured against external surveys and standard frameworks; the main vulnerability is photometric-redshift systematics, not circular derivation.

full rationale

The paper's derivation chain is: ALMA 870-µm detections of H-dropouts provide fluxes; SFRs are obtained by converting those fluxes with a far-infrared SED template; space densities and SFR densities are computed from the resulting masses and redshifts with explicit incompleteness corrections; halo masses come from an angular cross-correlation with H-band-selected galaxies and the Mo & White (2002) bias framework. None of these steps re-uses its own output as an input. The headline comparisons are against external benchmarks: ZFOURGE LBGs, ALESS SMGs, UV luminosity functions, semi-analytic models, and Illustris, so the central claim is falsifiable and not equivalent to a fit by construction. The paper contains several self-citations (e.g., refs 11, 13, 15, 32, 33, 54), but they supply prior selection work, an empirical dust-temperature distribution, serendipitous ALMA detections, and independent blind-survey completeness checks; none is a self-cited uniqueness theorem or a forced ansatz. The one mild self-calibration is that the stacked far-infrared SED, built from the same 39 ALMA-detected sources, is used to convert individual 870-µm fluxes to L_IR and to define S_870/S_450 redshift tracks; this is an explicit modeling assumption rather than a tautology, and the z>3 assignment is additionally supported by optical SED fitting and external templates. The skeptical concern about uncertain photometric redshifts is a legitimate external-validity risk, not a circularity: if many sources are at z~2, the derived density and SFRD would shrink, but that is a measurement-error issue, not a logical reduction of the result to its inputs.

Assumptions & free parameters 4 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claims (space density, star-formation-rate density, halo mass) rest on standard cosmological and IMF assumptions, the hypothesis that 870 um emission traces star formation, and an IR SED library calibrated at z<4 applied to z>4. The free parameters are the stacked dust temperature (used per source), completeness corrections, and fixed fit parameters; none of these is a fitted prediction of the target result.

free parameters (4)
  • Dust temperature T_dust = 36.7 +/- 2.1 K (from stacked SED)
    Fit to the stacked Herschel+ALMA far-infrared SED of the 39 ALMA-detected H-dropouts; then assumed, with 5 K scatter, for each source to convert 870 um flux to L_IR and SFR.
  • Completeness correction factor = 2.0 to 2.4
    Combines chance-superposition completeness (p(n=0)=0.53) with SEDS IRAC incompleteness (93% at [4.5]=22 to 75-80% at 24); multiplies the derived number density, star-formation-rate density, and mass density.
  • Maximum dust attenuation A_V = up to 6 mag
    Allowed range in the FAST and CIGALE SED fits; affects stellar mass and SFR estimates for individual objects.
  • CCF power-law slope beta = 0.8 (fixed)
    Fixed to 0.8 in the angular correlation fit following standard practice; affects the derived correlation length and halo mass.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption Concordance flat LCDM cosmology with OmegaM=0.3, OmegaLambda=0.7, H0=70 km/s/Mpc
    Adopted in Methods for distance, volume, and halo mass conversions.
  • domain assumption Chabrier initial mass function
    Used to convert luminosities and SFRs to stellar masses; a different IMF would shift stellar masses by roughly 0.2 dex.
  • domain assumption The ALMA 870 um continuum is dominated by star formation, not AGN
    The paper uses 870 um flux to derive L_IR and SFR; a significant AGN contribution would lower the implied SFRs.
  • domain assumption Far-infrared SED templates from Schreiber et al. (2018) describe the IR emission of H-dropouts
    Used to interpret the stacked SED and assign T_dust and L_IR; the library is calibrated on galaxies at 0<z<4.
  • domain assumption Calzetti attenuation curve with A_V up to 6
    Used in FAST and CIGALE SED fitting; alternative attenuation laws would change stellar masses.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of A dominant population of optically invisible massive galaxies in the early Universe." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/HPXJC7DF

@misc{pith2026190802372,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: A dominant population of optically invisible massive galaxies in the early Universe},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/HPXJC7DF}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:1908.02372}
}
abstract

Our current knowledge of cosmic star-formation history during the first two billion years (corresponding to redshift z >3) is mainly based on galaxies identified in rest-frame ultraviolet light. However, this population of galaxies is known to under-represent the most massive galaxies, which have rich dust content and/or old stellar populations. This raises the questions of the true abundance of massive galaxies and the star-formation-rate density in the early universe. Although several massive galaxies that are invisible in the ultraviolet have recently been confirmed at early epochs, most of them are extreme starbursts with star-formation rates exceeding 1000 solar masses per year, suggesting that they are unlikely to represent the bulk population of massive galaxies. Here we report submillimeter (wavelength 870um) detections of 39 massive star-forming galaxies at z > 3, which are unseen in the spectral region from the deepest ultraviolet to the near-infrared. With a space density of about $2 \times 10^{-5}$ per cubic megaparsec (two orders of magnitudes higher than extreme starbursts) and star-formation rates of 200 solar masses per year, these galaxies represent the bulk population of massive galaxies that have been missed from previous surveys. They contribute a total star-formation-rate density ten times larger than that of equivalently massive ultraviolet-bright galaxies at z >3. Residing in the most massive dark matter halos at their redshifts, they are probably the progenitors of the largest present-day galaxies in massive groups and clusters. Such a high abundance of massive and dusty galaxies in the early universe challenges our understanding of massive-galaxy formation.

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    The observations were centered on the IRAC positions with a spectral setup placed around a central frequency of 343.5 GHz. While we asked 0.7′′- resolution observation for all the three fields, only the CANDLES-COSMOS field was observed as requested, yielding a synthesis beam of...

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 14, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.