Thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst effect in tachocline, magnetic reconnection phenomenon in lower layers, axion mechanism of solar luminosity variations, coronal heating problem solution and mechanism of ADM variations around BH

I.V. Sharph; M.E. Beglaryan; M.V. Eingorn; V.D. Rusov; V.P. Smolyar

REVIEW 5 major objections 4 minor 232 references

Thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst effect in tachocline, magnetic reconnection phenomenon in lower layers, axion mechanism of solar luminosity variations, coronal heating problem solution and mechanism of ADM variations around BH

T0 review · 5 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-14 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read The paper claims that the thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst effect in the Sun's tachocline produces a toroidal field $B_{\rm tacho}=4.1\times10^{7}$ G that exactly cancels the solar core field, from which it derives hadronic axion…

desk verdict The paper's central 4.1e7 G tachocline field is not supported by the derivation (gravity omitted, T=0 integration), but it contains a testable MFT rise-time prediction; worth refereeing, not desk-rejecting. read the letter →

arxiv 1908.06042 v4 pith:2M6ATIRA submitted 2019-08-16 astro-ph.SR

V.D. Rusov , M.V. Eingorn , I.V. Sharph , V.P. Smolyar , M.E. Beglaryan This is my paper · ORCID

classification astro-ph.SR

keywords tachoclineEttingshausen-Nernsteffectsolaraxionscoronalheatingluminosityvariationssunspotcyclemagneticfluxtubesasymmetricdarkmatter

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper sets out to show that a single physical effect can tie together several unsolved solar problems: the strong toroidal magnetic field at the base of the convection zone, the darkness of sunspots, the 11-year activity cycle, coronal heating, and solar luminosity variations. The central claim is that the thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst effect in the tachocline balances the gas-pressure gradient and forces $B_{\rm tacho}^2/(8\pi)=n_{\rm tacho}kT_{\rm tacho}$, yielding $B_{\rm tacho}=4.1\times10^{7}$ G; the paper asserts that this field exactly neutralizes the solar core field, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. From that field, together with maximal axion-photon conversion in the magnetic steps of reconnected flux tubes, the paper derives hadronic axion parameters $g_{a\gamma}=4.4\times10^{-11}$ GeV$^{-1}$ and $m_a=3.2\times10^{-2}$ eV, and argues that axion-origin X-rays channeled through hollow magnetic tubes explain sunspot darkness and heat the corona. A sympathetic reader would care because the proposal replaces the solar dynamo with a parameter-free magnetic-pressure estimate and turns the Sun into a possible laboratory for axions and asymmetric dark matter.

What carries the argument

The machinery is the thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst effect: across a magnetized fully ionized plasma, a temperature gradient drives a transverse current $\mathbf{j}_\perp=(3knc/2B^2)\,\mathbf{B}\times\nabla T$; in the tachocline the Lorentz force of that current is set equal to the gas-pressure gradient, producing the invariant $T^{1/4}n=\mathrm{const}$ and, after integration, the magnetic-pressure identity $B^2/(8\pi)=nkT$. This identity is the engine of the paper: it converts tachocline temperature and density into a field strength with no dynamo, and it supplies the long coherent field length needed for the axion-photon conversion that later fixes the axion parameters. The authors frame the tachocline as a holographic boundary and call the resulting poloidal-from-toroidal regeneration the holographic antidynamo mechanism.

What would settle it

A helioseismic or polarimetric determination of the tachocline toroidal field an order of magnitude below $4.1\times10^7$ G, or any observation showing that the core and tachocline fields are not equal and opposite, would falsify Eq. (25). Equally, a helioscope or cavity experiment that rules out $g_{a\gamma}=4.4\times10^{-11}$ GeV$^{-1}$ at $m_a\simeq3.2\times10^{-2}$ eV would falsify the derived axion parameters.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The load-bearing identity is Eq. (25), $B_{\rm tacho}^2/(8\pi)=n_{\rm tacho}kT_{\rm tacho}$, obtained by equating the thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst force with the pressure gradient and integrating the resulting invariant $T^{1/4}n=\mathrm{const}$ for singly ionized hydrogen. With tachocline density about $0.2$ g/cm$^3$ and temperature about $2.3\times10^6$ K, this gives $B_{\rm tacho}\simeq4100$ T $=4.1\times10^7$ G, which the paper treats as equal and opposite to the core field. The axion parameters then follow from requiring maximal conversion, $P_{a\to\gamma}=\frac14(g_{a\gamma}B_{\rm MS}L_{\rm MS})^2\sim1$, with $B_{\rm MS}\simeq3600$ T over $L_{\rm MS}\simeq1.28\times10^4$ km, giving $g_{a\gamma}\simeq4.4\times10^{-11}$ GeV$^{-1}$ and $m_a\simeq3.2\times10^{-2}$ eV. The same numbers reproduce the observed coronal X-ray luminosity ratio $L_X/L_{\rm Sun}$ at solar maximum and minimum, about $2.7\times10^{-6}$ and $2.0\times10^{-8}$.

Load-bearing premise

The whole derivation depends on assuming that the only force balancing the gas-pressure gradient in the tachocline is the thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst force; if gravity, rotation, turbulent stresses, or magnetic curvature forces contribute comparably at that depth, the $4.1\times10^7$ G field and the axion parameters built on it do not follow.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

If the Ettingshausen-Nernst balance holds, the tachocline field is fixed by local gas pressure alone, so no dynamo is needed to produce the order-$10^7$ G toroidal field that anchors rising flux tubes.
Magnetic flux tubes with the paper's ring radius of about 100 km would rise from the overshoot tachocline to the surface in roughly one day at about 1.4 km/s, matching helioseismic detections of emerging magnetic structures.
Axion-origin X-rays channeled along hollow tubes would make sunspots dark and would supply the corona's 0.5-10 keV spectrum, with computed coronal luminosity ratios close to the observed values at solar maximum and minimum.
The axion parameters $m_a\simeq3.2\times10^{-2}$ eV and $g_{a\gamma}\simeq4.4\times10^{-11}$ GeV$^{-1}$ fall inside the window left open by stellar-evolution and laboratory bounds, so the mechanism is directly testable by next-generation helioscopes.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

If the tachocline field scales as $B^2=8\pi nkT$ in other stars with tachoclines, then the same argument predicts a family of core-canceling fields that scale with each star's local density and temperature; that correlation could be checked against stellar activity and magnetic-cycle data.
An axion at $m_a\simeq3.2\times10^{-2}$ eV lies above the classic QCD axion band, so a null result from a helioscope sensitive at that mass would separate this proposal from the standard axion window even before solar modeling is revisited.
The paper's asymmetric-dark-matter link implies a testable cross-correlation: sunspot number, solar neutrino fluxes, and the gamma-ray flux from the solar disk should oscillate in phase with the inferred ADM density, and could be compared with the S-star orbital timing data at the Galactic center.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

Two things you should know. First, the paper's main quantitative claim, B_tacho = 4.1e7 G, is not supported by the derivation given. Eq. (15) balances the Ettingshausen-Nernst force against the pressure gradient alone, while in the tachocline the leading balance is ∇p ≈ ρg; the EN force is, at best, a small correction. The integration from T = 0 to T_tacho is also unphysical: the relation T^{1/4} n = const makes n diverge at T → 0, and starting from a realistic base temperature (say ~2.3e6 K) suppresses B^2 by a factor of about 1 - (T_min/T_tacho)^{3/4}, which is substantial since the tachocline is a thin layer. Second, the paper does contain one testable sub-result: the 'virtually empty' flux tube model gives a rise time of ~1.3 days and speed ~1.4 km/s, matching the helioseismic detections of Ilonidis et al. That part is worth taking seriously.

What is genuinely new? The paper mostly recycles Rusov et al. 2015 for the EN field and Vysotsskii et al. 1978 for the axion luminosity mechanism, adding a holographic principle gloss and an ADM/BH 'clock' narrative. Neither addition has a quantitative role. The axion parameters (gaγ = 4.4e-11 GeV^-1, ma = 3.2e-2 eV) are obtained by requiring maximal conversion and then used to 'confirm' the same X-ray spectra they were fitted to. That's circular.

On the positive side, the authors engage a wide literature, the MFT dynamics is built on the standard van Ballegooijen-Fan-Fisher formalism, and the paper is transparent about its dependence on prior work. Eq. (24) has a typo in the temperature exponent (should be T^-1/4, not T^+1/4); with the correct exponent the integration does give Eq. (25), so that particular stress-test concern is fixable and not fatal. The surrounding physics is the problem.

Who is this for? A specialist in solar magnetism or axion physics who is curious about maximal testable speculation. It is not ready as a research result. The central field estimate and the axion parameters need a proper derivation with gravity and physical boundary conditions before the later claims can be trusted. Still, the MFT rise-time prediction is concrete and the paper is not incoherent; I would not desk-reject it. I'd send it to a referee, expecting them to recommend rejection unless the force balance is corrected.

Referee Report

5 major / 4 minor

Summary. The manuscript claims that the holographic principle of quantum gravity, realized as a two-dimensional boundary at the solar tachocline, generates the toroidal magnetic field through the thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst (EN) effect. The central quantitative chain gives B_tacho = 4.1e7 G from the condition B_tacho^2/(8π) = n_tacho k T_tacho (Eq. 25), asserts this field 'neutralizes' the solar core field, and then uses B_MS ≈ 3600 T and L_MS ≈ 1.28e4 km in the photon-axion conversion probability (Eq. 95) to obtain gaγ = 4.4e-11 GeV^-1 and ma = 3.2e-2 eV. These axion parameters are in turn used to explain solar luminosity variations, coronal heating, sunspot cycles, and ADM-modulated variability around the Galactic Center black hole. The paper also develops a model of magnetic flux tubes, magnetic reconnection, and Joy's law based on the same magnetic field value.

Significance. If the chain of claims were correct, the paper would unify solar magnetism, axion physics, coronal heating, and dark-matter modulation in a single holographic framework, which would be highly significant. The manuscript is explicit enough that the central derivation can be checked, and it engages with real observational quantities (sunspot areas, ROSAT/ASCA coronal luminosities, helioseismic sound-speed deviations). However, the load-bearing derivation of B_tacho is physically unsupported, the integration leading to Eq. (25) is unphysical, and the axion parameters are calibrated post hoc against the same observations later cited as confirmation. The paper therefore does not provide a reliable basis for its conclusions.

major comments (5)

[§3.1.1.1, Eq. (15)] The momentum balance leading to Eq. (25) equates the EN force density to ∇p alone, omitting the gravitational body force. In the solar tachocline the radial hydrostatic balance is ∇p ≈ ρg; with ρ ≈ 0.2 g/cm^3 and g ≈ 5×10^4 cm/s^2 at 0.7 R_sun, ρg ≈ 10^4 dyn/cm^3, which is the same order as the EN force estimated from the tachocline temperature gradient. Dropping gravity is therefore not a controlled approximation, and Eq. (25) is not a supported force balance.
[§3.1.1.1, Eqs. (18)-(25)] The integration from T = 0 to T_tacho is physically unmotivated. The relation T^{1/4} n = const is a local equilibrium consequence of Eqs. (16)-(18); extending it from zero temperature to the tachocline requires n → ∞ as T → 0 and integrates over a regime in which the relation is not derived. The physical lower limit should be the base of the tachocline (T ≈ 2.3×10^6 K), and using that limit changes the accumulated B^2 by a factor of order 1 - (T_min/T_tacho)^{3/4}, invalidating the quoted neutralization condition.
[§3.1.1.1, Eq. (24)] As printed, Eq. (24) is dimensionally inconsistent: substituting Eq. (23) into Eq. (22) gives d(B^2) = -6π k n_tacho T_tacho^{1/4} T^{-1/4} dT, not T^{+1/4}. The printed T^{+1/4} version cannot yield Eq. (25). If the exponent is a typographical error, it must be corrected before the derivation can be evaluated; as it stands, the central field value B_tacho = 4.1×10^7 G does not follow from the displayed equations.
[§3.2, Eqs. (95)-(96) and (105)-(114)] The axion parameters are obtained by imposing Pa→γ ≈ 1 with B_MS and L_MS that derive from the unsupported B_tacho value, and the claimed coronal-luminosity agreement is not independent. In Eqs. (105)-(107) and (111)-(112), Pγ is normalized using observed sunspot areas and La/LSun is normalized to match the ROSAT/PSPC coronal X-ray luminosities, so the subsequent 'agreement' in Eqs. (111)-(112) and (119)-(120) is built into the construction rather than constituting confirmation. Thus gaγ and ma inherit the errors of Eq. (25).
[§3.1.1.2 and §4] The holographic principle is invoked as the cause of the EN effect and of the 'holographic Babcock-Leighton mechanism', but no quantitative holographic calculation is presented: there is no explicit holographic dictionary, no boundary theory, and no derivation connecting AdS/CFT or holographic renormalization to the tachocline. The identification of the tachocline as a two-dimensional holographic boundary is an unsupported assertion, and it is load-bearing because it motivates the entire magnetic-field generation mechanism.

minor comments (4)

[Throughout] The notation B_tacho^Sun = 4.1×10^7 G = -B_core^Sun conflates scalar field strength with vector direction and should be clarified.
[References] Several citations contain apparent errors or inconsistent spellings, e.g., 'Hassan, 2003' should likely be 'Hasan, 2003', and 'Caligari et al., 1981' appears to be dated incorrectly.
[Figures] Figures 6, 9, and 22 are extremely dense and use color/line labels that are difficult to disambiguate in grayscale; key quantities such as LMS and the axion path should be labeled more clearly.
[Abstract and §3.2] The abstract asserts that the axion parameters 'do not contradict any known experimental and theoretical model-independent limitations', but the manuscript does not provide a full quantitative comparison with the displayed CAST/ADMX/RBF bounds; the relevant exclusion curves should be discussed directly.

Circularity Check

3 steps flagged · score 8.0 of 10

The 'neutralization' of the solar core field is definitional (B_core is set equal to -B_tacho), the axion parameters are obtained by imposing maximal conversion P~1 and then reconciled with the same X-ray data, and the load-bearing holographic-EN mechanism is supported only by the authors' own prior work.

self definitional [Abstract; Sec. 3.1.1.1, Eqs. (25)-(27)]
"the repulsive toroidal magnetic field of the tachocline (B_tacho^Sun = 4.1·10^7 G = - B_core^Sun) precisely "neutralizes" the magnetic field in the Sun core, since the projections of the magnetic fields in the tachocline and the core have equal values but opposite directions."

Equation (25) is derived entirely from tachocline quantities: integrating the EN-current relation gives B_tacho^2/(8π)=n_tacho k T_tacho. No core field enters the derivation. The claimed equality B_core = -B_tacho is then imposed as a definition of B_core, so the 'neutralization' is true by construction rather than a predicted consequence. The accompanying text repeats this: the integrated relation 'expresses the fact' that the tachocline field neutralizes the core, with the core-field value nowhere independently obtained.
fitted input called prediction [Sec. 3.2, Eqs. (95)-(96), (97), (104), (111)-(112)]
"Since P_a→γ ∼ 1, we obtain the following parameters of the hadron axion ... g_aγ ∼ 4.4·10^-11 GeV^-1, m_a ∼ 3.2·10^-2 eV. The choice of these values is also related to the observed solar luminosity variations in the X-ray band (see (104))."

The conversion probability is set to ~1 (maximal conversion) in Eq. (95), and this imposed value is used to solve for g_aγ from B_MS and L_MS. The later comparison with ROSAT/PSPC coronal X-ray luminosities (Eqs. (111)-(112)) is described as fitting 'well enough,' but the same X-ray luminosity variations are referenced as motivating the chosen values. Thus the axion parameters are not predicted from first principles; they are calibrated by an assumption (P~1) and then re-presented as confirmed by the data used for the choice.

1 more flagged steps

self citation load bearing [Sec. 3.1.1, 3.1.1.2, 3.1.3.1; Eq. (62)]
"the strong decrease in internal pressure of the gas, which is predetermined by the thermomagnetic EN effect (see Eq. (25) in (Rusov et al., 2015)), yields Δρ/ρ_ext = B^2/8πp_ext = 1/β ∼= 1."

The central premise that the thermomagnetic EN effect generates the 10^7 G tachocline field and hence the Babcock-Leighton 'holographic' mechanism is supported by citing the authors' own Rusov et al. (2015), whose Eq. (25) is the same B^2/(8π)=nkT pressure-balance relation re-derived in this paper. The citation therefore does not add independent evidence; the argument's load-bearing step reduces to an unverified self-citation. The claim that holographic quantum gravity gives rise to the EN effect is likewise asserted with reference to the authors' prior work rather than demonstrated here.

full rationale

The only portion of the derivation that is algebraically self-contained is the EN pressure-balance chain leading to Eq. (25): Spitzer's EN current, Maxwell's equation, and the assumed T^(1/4)n=const relation imply B_tacho^2/(8π)=n_tacho k T_tacho. That step does not by itself require the core field. The circularity enters when the paper converts this into the headline statement that B_tacho exactly neutralizes B_core: the equality B_core = -B_tacho is written into the claim, with no independent determination of the core field, so the neutralization is definitional rather than derived. The axion parameters are similarly obtained by imposing P_a→γ≈1 and inverting the conversion formula; the subsequent 'agreement' with X-ray coronal luminosities is a consistency check on the same imposed maximal-conversion assumption and the same X-ray data cited as motivation, not an independent prediction. Finally, the claim that holographic quantum gravity produces the EN effect and the Babcock-Leighton holographic mechanism is referred to the authors' own Rusov et al. (2015), whose Eq. (25) is the very relation re-derived in this paper; this self-citation is load-bearing because no external verification of the holographic mechanism is provided. These three reductions make the central claims substantially circular, so the score is 8 rather than 6; the pressure-balance algebra itself retains some independent content, which prevents a score of 10.

Assumptions & free parameters 5 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 2 invented entities

The central claims rest on a chain of assumptions: the applicability of the EN effect, the neglect of gravity, artificial integration limits, and a speculative holographic cause. The axion parameters are fitted to observations rather than predicted. There are no independent falsifiable handles for the invented holographic mechanism.

free parameters (5)

ga_gamma = 4.4e-11 GeV^-1
Derived by setting Pa->gamma = 1 in Eq. (95) and using assumed B_MS and L_MS; this is a fit to the assumption of maximal conversion, not a computed prediction.
ma = 3.2e-2 eV
Chosen in relation to ga_gamma; no derivation is shown in the visible text, and it is tuned to match solar X-ray luminosity constraints.
L_MS = 1.28e4 km
Length of magnetic steps in the O-loop, assumed and used in Eq. (95) to derive ga_gamma.
a_axion = 3.7e-4 Hp (about 100 km)
Radius of the flux tube ring, chosen in Eq. (58) so that the rise speed and flux match the observations of Ilonidis et al. and Zwaan.
B_MS = 3600 T
Horizontal magnetic field of the magnetic steps, assumed equal to B(0.72 R_sun) based on the cooling condition; effectively a selected parameter.

assumptions (6)

domain assumption The Ettingshausen-Nernst current formula, j = (3 k n_e c / 2 B^2) B x grad T, applies to the tachocline plasma.
The formula (Eq. 11) is standard kinetic plasma physics, but its use in the solar tachocline assumes weak collisions and a fully ionized hydrogen plasma with Z = 1, which may not hold.
ad hoc to paper The transverse force balance at the tachocline contains only the EN force and the gas pressure gradient, neglecting gravity.
Eq. (15) sets (1/c) j x B = grad p; the derivation of Eq. (25) depends on this balance, but gravity is comparable in the tachocline and would alter the result.
ad hoc to paper The integration over temperature from T = 0 to T_tacho is physically meaningful.
The limits [Btacho, 0] and [0, Ttacho] in Eq. (24) are chosen to produce Eq. (25); a real tachocline does not extend to T = 0, so the integral is an artificial construction.
ad hoc to paper The holographic principle of quantum gravity acts at the tachocline as a two-dimensional boundary.
Section 3.1.1.2 asserts that the tachocline is a holographic boundary, but this assertion is not used in any quantitative equation and has no independent evidence.
domain assumption Solar axions are produced in the core and efficiently convert to X-rays in the tachocline magnetic field.
The existence of axions and the Primakoff conversion mechanism are standard beyond-Standard-Model hypotheses, but the specific parameters and conversion locations are not experimentally established.
domain assumption Asymmetric dark matter is captured by the Sun and its density modulation affects the solar core temperature and the solar cycle.
Section 3.2.2.2 assumes ADM capture and heat transport based on prior literature, but the modulation mechanism and its connection to the 11-year cycle are not demonstrated.

invented entities (2)

Holographic Babcock-Leighton mechanism
purpose: To generate a strong toroidal magnetic field in the tachocline without a solar dynamo
The mechanism is named and described qualitatively in Section 3.1.1.2, but it has no falsifiable prediction beyond the field value, which itself rests on the questionable EN derivation.
Holographic boundary at the tachocline
purpose: To provide a physical reason for the tachocline's existence and for the EN effect
The paper asserts that the tachocline is a holographic surface, but provides no calculation or observable consequence that would confirm this conjecture.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst effect in tachocline, magnetic reconnection phenomenon in lower layers, axion mechanism of solar luminosity variations, coronal heating problem solution and mechanism of ADM variations around BH." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/2M6ATIRA

@misc{pith2026190806042,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst effect in tachocline, magnetic reconnection phenomenon in lower layers, axion mechanism of solar luminosity variations, coronal heating problem solution and mechanism of ADM variations around BH},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/2M6ATIRA}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:1908.06042}
}

abstract

It is shown that the holographic principle of quantum gravity (in the hologram of the Universe, and therefore in our Galaxy, and of course on the Sun!), in which the conflict between the theory of gravitation and quantum mechanics disappears, gives rise to the Babcock-Leighton holographic mechanism. Unlike the solar dynamo models, it generates a strong toroidal magnetic field by means of the thermomagnetic Ettingshausen-Nernst (EN) effect in the tachocline. Hence, it can be shown that with the help of the thermomagnetic EN effect, a simple estimate of the magnetic pressure of an ideal gas in the tachocline of e.g. the Sun can indirectly prove that by using the holographic principle of quantum gravity, the repulsive toroidal magnetic field of the tachocline ($B_{tacho}^{Sun} = 4.1 \cdot 10^7 ~G = - B_{core}^{Sun}$) precisely "neutralizes" the magnetic field in the Sun core, since the projections of the magnetic fields in the tachocline and the core have equal values but opposite directions. The basic problem is a generalized problem of the antidynamo model of magnetic flux tubes (MFTs), where the nature of both holographic effects (the thermomagnetic EN~effect and Babcock-Leighton holographic mechanism), including magnetic cycles, manifests itself in the modulation of asymmetric dark matter (ADM) and, consequently, the solar axion in the Sun interior.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 1908.06042 by the authors.

**Figure 2.** The possible ways of the toroidal MFT development into a sunspot. (a) A rough repre [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_2.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** The reconstructed solar magnetic field (in blue) simulation from ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_3.png] view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (30 more)

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: An illustration of the main possible processes of a magnetically active star of the Sun type. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_4.png]

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: An isolated and anchored in the tachocline (a) MFT (adopted from ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_5.png]

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: (a) Topological effects of magnetic reconnection inside the magnetic tubes with the “mag [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_6.png]

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: Rosseland mean opacity kR, in units of cm2 g −1 , shown versus temperature (X-axis) and density (multi-color curves, plotted once per decade), computed with the solar metallicity of hydrogen and helium mixture X=0.7 and Z=0.02. The panel shows curves of kR versus tempe…

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: (a) Normalized external temperature, density and gas pressure as functions of the solar [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p018_8.png]

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: (a) A virtually empty magnetic tube is born anchored to the tachocline and lifted to the surface of the Sun by the neutral buoyancy (ρ penum int = ρext). The significant convection suppression by the magnetic field provokes the rapid decrease in temperature and density…

**Figure 10.** Figure 10: A sketch of the magnetic reconnection near the tachocline. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p022_10.png]

**Figure 11.** Figure 11: (a) A sketch of the magnetic tube born anchored to the tachocline and risen to the solar surface by the neutral buoyancy (ρext = ρ 0 int). The strong convection suppression inside the tube leads to the abrupt decrease of temperature and density (ρ 0 int ρint), which i…

**Figure 12.** Figure 12: A sketch of magnetic reconnection near the tachocline (see analogous Fig. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p030_12.png]

**Figure 13.** Figure 13: Turbulent cascade (Kolmogorov, 1941, 1968, 1991) and magnetic reconnection in the lower layers inside the magnetic tube. Common to these various turbulent systems is the presence of the inertial range of Kolmogorov, through which the energy is cascaded from large to s…

**Figure 14.** Figure 14: Topological effects of magnetic reconnection in the lower (left) or upper (right) layers of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p032_14.png]

**Figure 15.** Figure 15: The physical nature of the cycle of sunspots as a consequence of the modulation of MFTs, [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p033_15.png]

**Figure 16.** Figure 16: (a)-(b) Flux tubes without drag of adiabatic flux ring in the superadiabatic convection zone (red lines: based on the (Choudhuri and Gilman, 1987) and (Choudhuri, 1989) MEQ model (see also (10) in (D’Silva and Choudhuri, 1993)), as well as on the vanBFF MEQ model (see…

**Figure 17.** Figure 17: Scheme of turbulent reconstruction of the toroidal magnetic field in the convective zone: [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p037_17.png]

**Figure 18.** Figure 18: (a) Change in the magnetic field strength Bz along the rising Ω-loop as a function of the Sun depth R/RSun in the convective zone. The blue line (see also [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p038_18.png]

**Figure 19.** Figure 19 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p044_19.png]

**Figure 20.** Figure 20: (a) Summary of astrophysical, cosmological and laboratory constraints on axions and ALPs. Comprehensive axion/ALP parameter space, highlighting two main front lines of direct detection experiments: helioscopes (CAST (Andriamonje et al., 2007; Arik, E. et al. (CAST co…

**Figure 21.** Figure 21: (a) Reconstructed solar photon spectrum in the 0.5 - 10 keV band from the active Sun (red line) and quiet Sun (blue line) from accumulated observations (spectral bin is 6.1 eV wide). Adopted from (Peres et al., 2000). (b) Reconstructed solar photon spectrum fit in the…

**Figure 22.** Figure 22: Top: Synthesized photon spectra of the corona and flares. (a) The coronal total luminosity of the Sun (see [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p055_22.png]

**Figure 23.** Figure 23: Emission mechanism of ICS revisited. (a) Observing the photon energy ε mec 2 , we consider the region in which the electrons have the energy distribution N(E) ≈ E −δ extending to arbitrarily high energies. Vertical shows the relative values of inverse Compton (jIC) a…

**Figure 24.** Figure 24: (a) Deviation of radial sound speed profile (Sun − model)/Sun in the solar interior from values of (Vincent et al., 2016) (solid line) and (Grevesse and Sauval, 1998) (GS98) with axions (dotted line) using two solar models. (Vincent et al., 2016) show the best fit for…

**Figure 25.** Figure 25: (a) Stellar orbits at the GC in the central arcsecond (declination Dec(”) as a function of time for the stars and red ascension R.A.(”)) (Gillessen et al., 2009; Genzel et al., 2010). The coordinate system is chosen so that Sgr A* (the SMBH with the mass ∼ 4.3 · 106 M…

**Figure 26.** Figure 26: Anatomy of a spinning BH. (a) Generic accretion disk around the BH and AGN jet. SMBH in the center of a galaxy (black ball) with the accretion disc around (light-yellow torus). Blue lines show the magnetic fields. Inset: The magnetic field is amplified inside the disk…

**Figure 27.** Figure 27: (a) The magnetic flux is expelled from the event horizon, thus illustrating the Meissnerlike effect, which arises also for the dyonic BH – Reissner-Nordstrom AdS BH with both electric and magnetic charges and no scalar hair (see (Hartnoll et al., 2007; Hartnoll et al…

**Figure 28.** Figure 28: (a) The Mexican-hat potential energy density considered by Jeffrey Goldstone in his seminal paper (Goldstone, 1961). The energy density is a function of the real (Re) and imaginary (Im) values of a spinless field φ. In the context of the electroweak theory developed l…

**Figure 29.** Figure 29: The gravitational waves signals as the signatures of quantum gravity near the BH bound [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p084_29.png]

**Figure 30.** Figure 30: Schematic representation not to scale: Generalized thermomagnetic EN effect and virtu [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p087_30.png]

**Figure 31.** Figure 31: Global rendering of the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy (Sgr) tidal debris and the Milky Way [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p090_31.png]

**Figure 32.** Figure 32: S-stars between the inner edge of the disk and the BH “tachocline”. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p094_32.png]

**Figure 33.** Figure 33: Fuzzball complementarity. (a) Schematic description of a microstate solution of Einstein’s equations: the fuzzball structure is fluctuating on a very fine scale for generic microstates. There are ‘local ergoregions’ with rapidly changing direction of frame dragging ne…

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