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ATOMS: ALMA Three-millimeter Observations of Massive Star-forming regions -- XIX. The origin of SiO emission

T0 review · 3 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-12 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read Across 118 massive star-forming regions, more than two-thirds of silicon monoxide emission comes from broad velocity components tracing protostellar outflows.

desk verdict The core result—most SiO traces outflows—is solid, but the headline 66% statistic is an unweighted per-source mean, not the luminosity-weighted fraction the abstract claims; fix that before accepting. read the letter →

arxiv 2411.19489 v1 pith:XZNTOWRH submitted 2024-11-29 astro-ph.GA

Rong Liu , Tie Liu , Izaskun Jiménez-Serra , Jin-Zeng Li , Jesús Martín-Pintado , Xunchuan Liu , Chang Won Lee , Patricio Sanhueza
show 18 more authors
James O. Chibueze Víctor M. Rivilla Mika Juvela Laura Colzi Leonardo Bronfman Hong-Li Liu Miguel Sanz-Novo Álvaro López-Gallifa Shanghuo Li Andrés Megías David San Andrés Guido Garay Jihye Hwang Jianwen Zhou Fengwei Xu Antonio Martínez-Henares Anindya Saha Hafiz Nazeer
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords SiOemissionmolecularoutflowsUCHIIregionsmassivestarformationshocktracerlineprofiledecompositionH13CO+ATOMSsurvey
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper asks where silicon monoxide (SiO) emission in massive star-forming regions actually comes from, using ALMA maps of 146 regions from the ATOMS survey. The authors decompose SiO (2-1) line profiles into broad and narrow Gaussian components and use the H$^{13}$CO$^{+}$ (1-0) line width as the dividing line between shock-broadened and quiescent gas. They find that broad SiO accounts for more than 66 percent of the total SiO luminosity across 118 decomposed sources, tying most SiO to protostellar outflows, while narrow SiO contributes about 34 percent and tracks gentler shocks. For nine sources whose SiO surrounds the ionized gas of an ultra-compact H II region, the paper argues the SiO is generated by the expansion of the H II region rather than by outflows. If correct, this makes SiO a reliable outflow tracer over large samples while flagging a minority population where SiO traces H II-region feedback.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is the broad/narrow decomposition of SiO (2-1) line profiles carried out pixel-by-pixel with scousepy, a spectral-line fitting tool. Each SiO component is classified by comparing its Gaussian FWHM with the H$^{13}$CO$^{+}$ (1-0) line width measured at the position of broadest SiO; components wider than that threshold count as broad (shock-broadened) and narrower components count as narrow. A second classification, applied to the 58 sources with UC H II regions, sorts them by the spatial relation between SiO emission and the half-peak contour of 3 mm continuum: coincident, offset, and surrounded. The surrounded class, where SiO rings the ionized gas and aligns with 8 micron and 1.3 GHz emission, is the evidence for H II-expansion-driven SiO.

What would settle it

Measure H$^{13}$CO$^{+}$ (1-0) line widths at several quiescent positions away from outflows in each of the 118 sources and compare them with the single value taken at the broadest-SiO position; if many quiescent positions are appreciably narrower, the broad/narrow classification threshold moves and the 66 percent broad-luminosity fraction would change.

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Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that the majority of SiO (2-1) luminosity in the ATOMS sample, above 66 percent, belongs to broad velocity components produced by strong protostellar outflows. Narrow components, contributing roughly one third of the luminosity, peak near ambient velocities and arise from lower-velocity shocks or young magnetic-precursor shocks. The paper additionally identifies nine 'surrounded' ultra-compact H II sources in which SiO emission encircles the 3 mm continuum and aligns with 8 micron and 1.3 GHz emission, interpreting this as SiO produced by the expanding H II region compressing molecular gas. Sources hosting UC H II regions show a weaker $L_{\rm bol}$-$L_{\rm SiO}$ correlation and higher SiO luminosity than sources without them, which the paper attributes to UV photochemistry from the H II regions. The result establishes SiO as a strong outflow tracer across a 118-source sample while delimiting a small subset where SiO traces H II expansion.

Load-bearing premise

The analysis assumes that the H$^{13}$CO$^{+}$ line width measured at the position of the broadest SiO emission is an upper limit to the quiescent gas line width across each source, so any SiO component wider than that value is necessarily shock-broadened.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • SiO (2-1) can be used as a statistically reliable outflow tracer in massive star-forming samples, since broad components carry the majority of its luminosity.
  • Narrow SiO emission, about one third of the luminosity, traces slower or younger shocks near ambient velocities, so it can complement broad SiO in evolutionary studies.
  • In the nine 'surrounded' UC H II sources, SiO traces expanding H II regions, so those sources should be set aside when SiO is used to measure outflow activity.
  • The weaker $L_{\rm bol}$-$L_{\rm SiO}$ correlation in UC H II sources indicates that UV photochemistry modifies SiO emission at later evolutionary stages.
  • The group A/group B spatial classification (broad more extended in 94 sources, narrow more extended in 24) provides a statistical baseline for testing outflow evolution with larger samples.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the 66 percent broad fraction holds under a stricter quiescent-line-width calibration, SiO luminosity could become a quantitative proxy for outflow power in unresolved or extragalactic observations.
  • The nine surrounded sources predict that expanding H II regions produce SiO shells at the interface between ionized gas and molecular cloud; a targeted search for such shells in other UC H II samples would test this minority channel directly.
  • Because only two sources show narrow SiO exceeding half of the total luminosity, the magnetic-precursor-dominated phase implied by the narrow component may be short; a larger sample with evolutionary indicators could quantify that phase's duration.
  • Combining the kinematic decomposition with H40alpha emission measures and PDR tracers could separate UV-photochemistry effects from pure shock effects in the UC H II subsample.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper presents an analysis of ALMA Band 3 observations of SiO(2-1) and H13CO+(1-0) toward 146 massive star-forming regions from the ATOMS survey. SiO is detected in 136 regions, and 118 are decomposed into broad and narrow Gaussian components using scousepy, with the broad/narrow classification based on comparison with the H13CO+ line width measured at the position of broadest SiO. The authors report that the majority of the SiO luminosity (above 66%) comes from broad components, which they attribute to outflows; they further identify nine 'surrounded' UC HII regions where SiO may trace expanding HII regions. They also examine correlations of SiO luminosity with bolometric luminosity and with the presence of UC HII regions.

Significance. If correct, the paper would provide the first large-sample, high-resolution census of the origin of SiO emission in massive star-forming regions, supporting the use of SiO as an outflow tracer while identifying a minority population in which SiO traces HII-region expansion. The sample size (118 decomposed sources) and the use of public ALMA data and public spectral-fitting tools (scousepy, MADCUBA) are strengths. However, the headline 66% statistic is computed as an unweighted mean of per-source narrow-component fractions rather than as a luminosity-weighted global fraction, and the threshold-based decomposition rests on an untested assumption about H13CO+ line widths. These issues affect the quantitative central claim and require revision before the result can be accepted as stated.

major comments (3)
  1. [Section 4.4 / Abstract] The statement that 'the majority of L_SiO (above 66%) can be attributed to broad SiO' is computed as the unweighted mean of the per-source narrow-component contributions (the 'Contribution N' column in Table A1; mean 33.78%), not as the luminosity-weighted global fraction sum(L_broad)/sum(L_broad + L_narrow) across the 118 decomposed sources. These two statistics can differ materially: sources with narrow fractions near 50% (I08076-3556, I16297-4757) receive the same weight as luminous broad-dominated sources (I18056-1952, 28.3% narrow; I15290-5546, 22.6% narrow). Since the 66% figure anchors the abstract, Section 5.1, and the conclusions, the authors must report the luminosity-weighted fraction and its uncertainty (including fitting, distance, and flux-calibration contributions), and revise the text if that fraction differs materially.
  2. [Section 4.1] The broad/narrow classification uses the H13CO+ line width measured at position B as an upper limit for the quiescent line width across each source. This assumption is load-bearing: if H13CO+ at B is broadened by outflow entrainment or by multiple velocity components along the line of sight, the threshold is overestimated; if it is narrower than the ambient line width elsewhere, the threshold is underestimated. In neither case is the direction of the bias in the broad luminosity fraction established. I request a sensitivity analysis (e.g., repeating the decomposition with thresholds of 0.5x, 1x, and 2x the adopted FWHM_B, or using FWHM_N from Table A1) and reporting the resulting range of the broad fraction. Without this, the quantitative claim is not robust.
  3. [Section 5.4 / Section 4.3.3] The identification of nine 'surrounded' UC HII sources as having SiO produced by expanding HII regions is based on spatial morphology (SiO surrounding the 3 mm continuum and associated with 8 um and 1.3 GHz emission). No quantitative kinematic or chemical diagnostics are presented to distinguish HII-expansion shocks from outflows driven by embedded low-mass protostars in the surrounding gas, which is the standard interpretation of SiO in such environments. The paper would be considerably strengthened by a test such as comparing the SiO line widths, peak velocities, and abundances of these sources with predictions for expanding HII shells, or by showing the absence of 4.5 um outflow signatures toward them. As it stands, this claim is a plausible speculation rather than a demonstrated result, and the abstract and conclusions should reflect that distinction.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Section 4.1] The section title 'H13CO+mission in active and quiescent regions' should read 'H13CO+ emission in active and quiescent regions'.
  2. [Figure 2] The caption describes 'red filled circles' while the text refers to 'red empty circles'; please make the symbol description consistent.
  3. [Equations (3)-(4)] The typesetting of the prefactors in Equations (3) and (4) is garbled (e.g., '2×10^11 2kT_ex...'); please correct the math display.
  4. [Section 4.2] There is a typo 'catergory' in the first paragraph; also, units such as 'Mo' should be written as 'M_sun' in Section 2.1 and Table A1.
  5. [Section 4.3.1] The KS tests compare sources classified as having outflows (based on Baug et al., in prep) against those without; since that classification uses SiO and HCO+ maps, the statistical comparison is not fully independent. Please note this limitation explicitly.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the broad/narrow SiO decomposition is calibrated to measured H13CO+ line widths and the outflow attribution is an external interpretation, not a fitted or self-referential quantity.

full rationale

The paper's central derivation is not circular. The broad/narrow SiO classification is made by comparing scousepy Gaussian fits to the measured H13CO+ line width at the position of the broadest SiO emission (Sects 3 and 4.1), an observable threshold external to the SiO luminosity calculation. The per-source L_SiO values follow from the standard radiative-transfer formula (Eqs. 1-2), and the 'above 66%' statement in Sect. 4.4 is the complement of the quoted mean narrow-component contribution of 33.78%, i.e., an average of measured per-source contributions rather than a parameter fitted to force any conclusion. The interpretation that broad SiO arises from strong outflows is supported by morphology, mid-IR associations, and previous independent studies; it is not definitionally identical to the line-width criterion. The adopted excitation temperatures and H13CO+ abundance (Sect. 4.5) are taken from published estimates, and although some are by the same group, they are not tuned to the outflow result and do not enter the 66% figure. Two caveats are worth noting but are not circularity: (1) if the H13CO+ line width at position B is itself broadened by outflows or multiple velocity components, the threshold is overestimated and the broad fraction becomes a conservative lower limit; and (2) the outflow flags from Baug et al. partly use ALMA SiO maps, so the KS-test in Sect. 4.3.1 is not a fully independent confirmation. Additionally, the abstract's 'whole sample' 66% should be understood as the unweighted mean of per-source narrow contributions rather than a luminosity-weighted global fraction; this is a statistical reporting issue, not a circular derivation. Overall, the analysis is self-contained against external ALMA data and published calibrations.

Assumptions & free parameters 3 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central claim does not rest on a free parameter in the traditional sense; the analysis is observational. The listed excitation temperatures and the H13CO+ abundance are adopted from prior literature and affect derived column densities and abundances, but not the kinematic origin of the SiO emission. The broad/narrow classification relies on the domain assumption that H13CO+ line width is a stable reference for ambient gas, which is the most fragile premise.

free parameters (3)
  • Excitation temperature T_ex for narrow component = 15 K
    Assumed for LTE column density calculation of narrow SiO and H13CO+ at position N; chosen slightly above the 9 K IRDC value (Jiménez-Serra et al. 2010). Changing it to 10 K alters column densities by less than a factor 1.2.
  • Excitation temperature T_ex for broad component = 50 K
    Assumed for LTE column density calculation of broad SiO; taken from shocked gas in molecular outflows (Jiménez-Serra et al. 2005). Changing it to 75 K alters column densities by more than a factor 1.4.
  • H13CO+ abundance relative to H2 = 4.2e-11
    Adopted from literature (Shimajiri et al. 2017; Tsuboi et al. 2011; Peretto et al. 2013) to convert N(SiO)/N(H13CO+) to SiO abundance; reported variations of a factor 3 across clouds.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption Local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) and optically thin emission for the SiO (2-1) and H13CO+ (1-0) lines
    Used in Section 4.5 to derive column densities and abundances via Equations 3 and 4; if the lines are optically thick, abundances would be underestimated.
  • domain assumption H13CO+ traces quiescent dense gas and its abundance varies by less than a factor of 3 over evolutionary timescales
    Justifies using the H13CO+ line width as a reference for the ambient gas in the broad/narrow decomposition (Section 4.1), citing Sanhueza et al. 2012 and Roueff et al. 2015.
  • domain assumption SiO components with line width larger than the H13CO+ line width are produced by stronger shocks, while narrower components are from low-velocity shocks or ambient gas
    Central classification rule in Section 4.1, based on previous SiO shock studies (Cosentino et al. 2018, 2020).
  • ad hoc to paper The H13CO+ line width measured at the position of broadest SiO serves as an upper limit to the quiescent line width for the whole source
    Explicit methodological choice in Section 4.1; if the H13CO+ at that position is itself broadened by entrainment or multiple components, the threshold is not an ambient reference.
  • domain assumption The 4.5, 8 and 24 micron emission trace outflows, heated dust and PDRs respectively, and spatial coincidence with SiO indicates an outflow origin
    Used in Section 5.1.1 to associate SiO with outflows in sources without UC HII regions; based on Noriega-Crespo et al. 2004 and Wynn-Williams 1982.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of ATOMS: ALMA Three-millimeter Observations of Massive Star-forming regions -- XIX. The origin of SiO emission." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/XZNTOWRH

@misc{pith2026241119489,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: ATOMS: ALMA Three-millimeter Observations of Massive Star-forming regions -- XIX. The origin of SiO emission},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/XZNTOWRH}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2411.19489}
}
abstract

The production of silicon monoxide (SiO) can be considered as a fingerprint of shock interaction. In this work, we use high-sensitivity observations of the SiO (2-1) and H$^{13}$CO$^{+}$ (1-0) emission to investigate the broad and narrow SiO emission toward 146 massive star-forming regions in the ATOMS survey. We detected SiO emission in 136 regions and distinguished broad and narrow components across the extension of 118 sources (including 58 UC $H_{II}$ regions) with an average angular resolution of 2.5$^{\prime}$$^{\prime}$. The derived SiO luminosity ($L_{SiO}$) across the whole sample shows that the majority of $L_{SiO}$ (above 66$\%$) can be attributed to broad SiO, indicating its association with strong outflows. The comparison of the ALMA SiO images with the filamentary skeletons identified from H$^{13}$CO$^{+}$ and in the infrared data (at 4.5, 8, and 24 $mu$m), further confirms that most SiO emission originates from outflows. However, note that for nine sources in our sample, the observed SiO emission may be generated by expanding UC $H_{II}$ regions. There is a moderate positive correlation between the bolometric luminosity ($L_{bol}$) and $L_{SiO}$ for both components (narrow and broad). The UC $H_{II}$ sources show a weaker positive correlation between $L_{bol}$ and $L_{SiO}$ and higher $L_{SiO}$ compared to the sources without UC $H_{II}$ regions. These results imply that the SiO emission from UC $H_{II}$ sources might be affected by UV-photochemistry induced by UC $H_{II}$ regions.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2411.19489 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Upper and middle panels: Comparison between the line profiles of SiO and H13CO+ emission extracted from the positions associated with the broadest and the narrowest SiO line widths (top and middle panels). The labels ‘B’ and ‘N’ after the source name in the upper left part of each panel, correspond to the positions with the broadest and narrowest SiO emission marked by orange and blue rectangles in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Top panel: Comparison between the broadest SiO line width com￾pared to the narrowest SiO line width measured for each source (see red filled circles). Bottom panel: Comparison between the H13CO+ line width extracted from position ‘B’ versus the H13CO+ line width extracted from position ‘N’. The red empty circles show each source. In both panels, the dashed line rep￾resents a 1:1 slope. The error bars in both plots r… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Four representative sources imaged with ALMA within the ATOMS program. The background corresponds to the SiO (2-1) integrated intensity maps. The black contours show the 3 mm continuum emission detected with ALMA, and contours are from 5𝜎 to the peak values in steps of 10𝜎. The bold gray lines represent the filament skeletons identified using H13CO+ as reported by Zhou et al. (2022). The green dashed rectangle is th… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (9 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Output of scousepy for source I12326-6245. In the upper left panel, we show the SiO (2-1) integrated intensity map where the SiO spectral grid map is overlaid. The grid size corresponds to the green rectangle size (6 × 6 pixels2 ) used in the fitted average spectra in …
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: The histogram shows the velocity offset compared to the systemic velocity and line width distribution of the broad and narrow components of the SiO emission for the entire sample. The open blue histograms correspond to the sources without outflow activity, and the oran…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The two cases of decomposed sources are based on the different morphology of narrow and broad SiO components. The upper panels display the SiO integrated intensity maps of broad (left) and narrow (right) components for a source from Group A and the lower panels present…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: The three classes of decomposed sources that host UC Hii regions based on their spatial distribution of the SiO and 3mm continuum emission: i) a ’coincident’ source (upper panels); ii) an ’offset’ source (middle panels); and iii) an ’surrounded’ source (lower panels). …
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Histograms of the velocity offset compared with the systemic velocity and line width distribution of the broad and narrow components of SiO emission for the three UC Hii categories. The orange-filled histograms correspond to coincident sources, and the open blue histog…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: The broadest SiO line width compared to the average H40𝛼 line width. The error bars in both plots represent the uncertainties associated with the line width. line widths, the SiO abundance varies from 6.4×10−11∼4.5×10−9 , factors of 3-4 higher than those found for the …
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Upper panels: The SiO luminosity (𝐿sio) versus bolometric luminosity (𝐿bol). The filled and empty gray stars present broad and narrow SiO components in A groups without UC Hii regions, and the filled and empty gray circles depict broad and narrow SiO components in B g…
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Upper: The emission measure (EM) value vs. SiO luminosity (𝐿SiO). The filled and empty gray stars indicate the broad and narrow SiO components associated with coincident sources. The filled and empty orange circles designate the broad and narrow SiO components for off…
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Three sources with expanding UC Hii regions. The background in red is SiO (2-1) integrated intensity maps. The black contours are 3 mm continuum emission, and contours are from 5𝜎 to the peak values in the step of 10𝜎. The purple contours are 8 µm emission, and contou…

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    write newline

    " write newline "" before.all 'output.state := FUNCTION fin.entry write newline FUNCTION new.block output.state before.all = 'skip after.block 'output.state := if FUNCTION new.sentence output.state after.block = 'skip output.state before.all = 'skip after.sentence 'output.stat...

Pith tools

Reviewed August 12, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.