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REVIEW 4 major objections 5 minor 1 cited by

Planet Masses, Radii, and Orbits from NASA's K2 Mission

T0 review · 4 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-08 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read A uniform Doppler survey of K2 planets reports masses, radii, and orbits for 86 planets around 55 stars, with 32 masses secure at better than 5-sigma.

desk verdict A genuine K2 mass catalog with four new >=3-sigma masses and a useful RV data release; the main table's negative masses and jitter for sub-threshold planets need cleaning before the catalog is used for statistics. read the letter →

arxiv 2502.04436 v1 pith:QWN4QGGX submitted 2025-02-06 astro-ph.EP astro-ph.IMastro-ph.SR

Andrew W. Howard , Evan Sinukoff , Sarah Blunt , Erik A. Petigura , Ian J. M. Crossfield , Howard Isaacson , Molly Kosiarek , Ryan A. Rubenzahl
show 45 more authors
John M. Brewer Benjamin J. Fulton Courtney D. Dressing Lea A. Hirsch Heather Knutson John H. Livingston Sean M. Mills Arpita Roy Lauren M. Weiss Bjorn Benneke David R. Ciardi Jessie L. Christiansen William D. Cochran Justin R. Crepp Erica Gonzales Brad M. S. Hansen Kevin Hardegree-Ullman Steve B. Howell Sébastien Lépine Arturo O. Martinez Leslie A. Rogers Joshua E. Schlieder Michael Werner Alex S. Polanski Isabel Angelo Corey Beard Aida Behmard Luke G. Bouma Casey L. Brinkman Ashley Chontos Fei Dai Paul A. Dalba Steven Giacalone Samuel K. Grunblatt Michelle L. Hill Stephen R. Kane Jack Lubin Andrew W. Mayo Teo Mocnik Joseph M. Akana Murphy Malena Rice Lee J. Rosenthal Dakotah Tyler Judah Van Zandt Samuel W. Yee
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.EPastro-ph.IMastro-ph.SR
keywords exoplanetmassesK2missionradialvelocityfollow-upDopplerspectroscopysub-Neptunestransitingplanetsstellaractivitymodelingplanetarysystemarchitectures
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper reports masses, radii, and orbital properties for 86 planets around 55 stars observed by NASA's K2 mission, with follow-up Doppler measurements from the HIRES spectrometer at Keck and the Automated Planet Finder at Lick. The aim is a catalog processed end to end with identical procedures — the same transit search and fitting, the same Keplerian and stellar-activity modeling of the radial velocities, and the same spectral analysis of the host stars — so the sample can support statistical studies of planet composition and system architecture rather than only individual case studies. The planets are mostly small, 1–3 $R_\oplus$, on periods from under a day to a few months, and 32 of the 86 masses are secure at better than $5\sigma$ (51 at better than $3\sigma$). The paper also serves as the public release for previously unpublished radial velocities and activity indicators, so the numbers can be checked and reused.

What carries the argument

The central machinery is a single modeling chain repeated identically for all 55 systems. Transit radii and ephemerides come from MCMC fits to the K2 photometry using the TERRA, k2phot, and EVEREST pipelines with a batman transit model. Masses come from Keplerian fits with the RadVel package (Eq. 1), where each planet contributes a semi-amplitude $K$, eccentricity, and argument of periastron, and where the semi-amplitude is allowed to go negative so that low-significance planets are not biased toward larger masses (following Lucy & Sweeney 1971). For active stars ($\log R'_{\rm HK} > -4.9$ and more than 30 radial velocities), stellar activity is absorbed by a quasi-periodic Gaussian process (Eq. 2) whose hyperparameters are trained on EVEREST photometry before being carried into the radial-velocity fit. Model complexity (trends, eccentricity, activity) is settled by AICc comparison, and stellar parameters come from SME for stars above 4700 K and SpecMatch-Emp for cooler stars, with masses and radii from isoclassify.

What would settle it

Re-fit the released radial velocities with an independent activity treatment — for example a Gaussian process whose targets are the activity indicators (S-index and H-$\alpha$) rather than photometry, or a joint fit of both — and compare the 32 claimed $\geq 5\sigma$ masses against the original values; any planet whose mass shifts by more than its quoted uncertainty identifies a system where the activity model is absorbing or injecting planetary signal. A cheaper cross-check using data the paper itself cites is to compare its low-significance masses with the later independent measurements it lists for K2-222, K2-236, K2-98, and K2-418; systematic disagreement in those overlaps would show the uniform chain under-reports the influence of stellar activity and sparse phase coverage.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

On its own terms, the paper's claim is that a uniform analysis chain now yields the masses, sizes, and orbits of 86 planets orbiting 55 stars observed by K2: 81 transiting planets found in the K2 photometry plus 5 additional non-transiting planets revealed by the Doppler data (HD 3167 d, HIP 41378 g, K2-73 c, WASP-47 c, WASP-107 c). Every system went through the same pipeline: the K2 light curves were searched and fit with a standard transit model for radii and ephemerides; the radial velocities from HIRES, APF, and the literature were modeled with Keplerian orbits (Eq. 1) plus per-instrument offsets, jitter, optional trends, and, for active stars, a quasi-periodic Gaussian process trained on photometry (Eq. 2); and the host-star parameters came from the same spectral modeling tools. The results include 32 planet masses measured at $\geq 5\sigma$ and 51 at $>3\sigma$, 66 planets smaller than $4\,R_\oplus$, first secure mass measurements for four systems (K2-10, K2-55, K2-105, K2-121), and mass upper limits for 12 candidates that rule out eclipsing-binary false positives. The authors position the catalog as a statistical resource and a data release, with search completeness and occurrence-rate analyses deferred to later papers.

Load-bearing premise

The analysis assumes that after subtracting each instrument's offsets and noise, and after removing stellar surface activity with a quasi-periodic Gaussian process trained on the star's brightness variations, whatever wobble remains in the radial velocities is caused by planets; for the roughly half of the catalog detected below $3\sigma$, a breach of that assumption would turn a reported mass into an upper limit or an artifact.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • The catalog gives a uniform basis for mapping planet densities across the super-Earth / sub-Neptune radius valley and for calibrating empirical mass-radius relations, with 66 planets smaller than $4\,R_\oplus$.
  • The released radial velocities and activity indicators let other groups re-check the fits, extend baselines to search for wide-orbit companions, and feed the data into dynamical and atmospheric studies.
  • The five non-transiting planets show that Doppler monitoring of transit hosts recovers planets the photometry misses, enlarging the known architectures of systems such as WASP-47, WASP-107, and HD 3167.
  • First-time mass measurements for K2-10 b, K2-55 b, K2-105 b, and K2-121 b, plus mass upper limits for twelve candidates, convert previously ambiguous candidates into planets with density constraints or rule out eclipsing-binary false positives.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the catalog is as methodologically uniform as claimed, it becomes a natural control sample for TESS-era mass measurements: any systematic offset between these K2 densities and per-system TESS analyses would point to method-dependent rather than astrophysical scatter.
  • Because roughly half the catalog's semi-amplitudes are consistent with zero, those entries are censored data; a hierarchical analysis that treats the sub-$3\sigma$ masses as upper limits could measure the intrinsic density spread of sub-Neptunes without the selection bias of keeping only secure detections.
  • A solar end-to-end test — running the same photometry-trained Gaussian process and Keplerian chain on Sun-as-a-star Doppler data, where the true signals are known — would probe how much of the mass posteriors are shaped by the activity model rather than the data.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

4 major / 5 minor

Summary. This paper presents a catalog of 86 planets orbiting 55 K2 target stars, combining K2 transit photometry with radial-velocity observations from Keck/HIRES, the APF, and literature data. The authors describe their transit-search pipeline, stellar characterization methods, and RadVel-based Keplerian/Gaussian-process modeling, and they release previously unpublished RVs and stellar activity indicators. The headline products are the planet masses, radii, and orbital parameters in Table 3, with 32 planets claimed at >5-sigma and 51 at >3-sigma mass significance.

Significance. If the catalog is used carefully, it is a valuable community resource: it provides a uniformly processed transit sample, new RV data for many K2 systems, and mass measurements for several planets that previously lacked them. The authors use standard, open-source tools (RadVel, emcee, batman, isoclassify), and many of their mass estimates agree with independent literature solutions. The main weakness is that the published tables and significance counts do not cleanly separate secure mass measurements from non-detections and upper limits. Negative masses and negative jitter entries appear in the machine-readable tables, which makes the catalog unsuitable for direct population-level use without additional processing. The paper's central claim of a uniformly processed catalog is also weakened by the explicit adoption of several literature solutions rather than a single re-fit of every system.

major comments (4)
  1. [Sec. 4.2.3 and Table 3] Allowing the RV semi-amplitude K to be negative, as stated in Sec. 4.2.3, produces unphysical planet masses and densities in the published catalog. For example, Table 3 reports K2-62 b mass = -1.0+4.3/-4.2 M_Earth and density = -0.7 ± 3.1 g/cm3, K2-37 b mass = -0.9+5.1/-5.2 M_Earth, and K2-220 b density = -0.0 ± 1.6 g/cm3. For a non-detection, the posterior median of a signed, unconstrained parameter is not a mass measurement and is not a well-defined upper limit. Because the abstract and Fig. 6 count planets by the significance of this signed quantity, the 51/32 detection statistics conflate non-detections with low-mass measurements. The machine-readable table should report physically meaningful quantities: positive-only semi-amplitudes, explicit upper limits, or a separate column flagging non-detections, with no negative masses or densities.
  2. [Table 19 (K2-73)] Table 19 reports sigma_HIRES = -4.99+0.56/-0.65 m/s for the K2-73 fit. A negative jitter term is unphysical and indicates either a parameterization issue (e.g., fitting a signed quantity instead of log jitter) or a reporting error. Negative jitter appears in other tables as well (e.g., Table 7 sigma_PARAS = -0.0+3.3/-3.5 m/s). This undermines the uncertainty model and must be corrected before the catalog is usable.
  3. [Sec. 5.3 vs. Table 3] The text in Sec. 5.3 states that 12 systems have only mass upper limits (<2-sigma), yet Table 3 lists these as point estimates with quoted central values and uncertainties, without a clear flag in the machine-readable table. The abstract's count of masses and the mass-significance histogram in Fig. 6 are therefore not reproducible from the table alone in a way that distinguishes detections from upper limits. The authors should either move upper-limit systems to a separate table or add explicit upper-limit columns and adjust the headline counts to reflect how many planets have genuine mass measurements.
  4. [Secs. A.1, A.5, A.9, A.18, A.21, A.32, A.37] The paper claims uniform analysis procedures as a key characteristic, but for several systems it simply adopts literature solutions rather than re-fitting the RVs with the same pipeline: HD 3167 (A.1), K2-291 (A.5), GJ 9827 (A.9), K2-24 (A.18), WASP-107 (A.21), K2-3 (A.32), and K2-108 (A.37) are among them. This is not inherently wrong, but it conflicts with the 'uniform analysis' framing and means that part of Table 3 is not homogeneous with the rest. The paper should clearly mark which entries come from the uniform pipeline and which are adopted, and soften the uniformity claim accordingly.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Fig. 42 / Table 19] The annotation in Fig. 42 lists M_c sin i = 1142 ± 49 M_Jup, while Table 19 and the text give 1142 ± 49 M_Earth; one of these is a typo and should be corrected.
  2. [Fig. 11 caption] The caption says the RVs come from 'HIRES and HARPS', but the text and data labels indicate HIRES and APF; the caption should be corrected.
  3. [Sec. A.7] There is a duplicated word in 'on the sub-Neptune side of the radius valleyradius valley' that should be fixed.
  4. [Sec. A.39] The sentence 'this weakly favors ... a low density and gas-dominated composition for K2-189 b' appears to refer to planet c, not b, based on context; please clarify.
  5. [Sec. 5.3] The abstract and conclusions state masses and radii for 86 planets, but five non-transiting planets (e.g., HD 3167 d, HIP 41378 g) do not have radii measured here; the wording should specify that radii are for the transiting subset.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: planet masses are empirical Keplerian fits to independent radial-velocity data, not outputs defined by their own inputs.

full rationale

The central claim—masses, radii, and orbits of K2 planets—is derived by direct maximum-likelihood and MCMC fitting of a Keplerian RV model (Eq. 1) to HIRES, APF, and literature radial velocities, with stellar parameters from independent spectral modeling (SME, SpecMatch, isoclassify). No reported planet mass is defined in terms of another reported mass or fitted to a target value; masses follow from the fitted semiamplitude K via the standard two-body relation. The paper's use of its own software (RadVel, TERRA, k2phot) and previous team solutions for a few systems (e.g., HD 3167 from Christiansen et al. 2017, K2-291 from Kosiarek et al. 2019a) is not load-bearing circularity because those prior analyses rest on independent RV data sets and do not presuppose the current catalog's outputs. The abstract's 'uniform analysis' claim is somewhat softened by adopting literature solutions for selected systems, but this is a consistency limitation, not a circular derivation. The allowance of negative K and the resulting nonphysical low-significance mass entries (e.g., K2-62 b and the negative jitter in Table 19) are statistical modeling choices intended to avoid Lucy-Sweeney bias; they affect interpretation of marginal detections but do not make the reported values equal to fitted inputs by construction. No uniqueness theorem, ansatz-smuggling citation, or renamed empirical pattern carries the derivation. The catalog is self-contained against external benchmarks such as Bonomo et al. 2023b and other literature mass measurements, which the paper cites for comparison. Therefore the circularity burden is negligible.

Assumptions & free parameters 5 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The catalog rests on standard RV fitting assumptions and a handful of domain-specific modeling choices; no new physical entities are introduced. The main hidden costs are the stellar parameter pipeline and the GP activity model, plus the reliability of adopted literature solutions.

free parameters (5)
  • RV semi-amplitude K per planet = varies, e.g., 0 to 347 m/s
    The core fitted quantity from which planet masses are derived; several planets have K consistent with zero.
  • Per-instrument velocity zero point (gamma) = varies per instrument
    Each telescope and instrument gets an independent offset in the Keplerian fit (Sec. 4.2.1).
  • Per-instrument jitter (sigma) = values range roughly 0 to 50 m/s; some quoted negative
    Added in quadrature to RV uncertainties; negative entries in Tables 13 and 19 indicate a reporting or fitting bug.
  • GP hyperparameters eta1, eta2, eta3, eta4 = e.g., eta3 rotation period 4 to 32 days
    Used for active stars; hyperparameters are trained on photometry for some systems and untrained for others (Sec. 4.2.2).
  • Linear and quadratic trend coefficients (gamma-dot, gamma-ddot) = varies, e.g., -1.93 m/s/day for K2-99
    Some models include trends to account for distant companions (Sec. 4.2.1).
assumptions (5)
  • standard math Keplerian orbital model with Kepler's equation solved numerically (Eq. 1)
    All RV signals are assumed to arise from bound planets on Keplerian orbits; RadVel solves Kepler's equation.
  • domain assumption Quasi-periodic Gaussian process kernel models stellar activity (Eq. 2)
    For active stars, activity is assumed to be quasi-periodic with timescales informed by photometry; if this is wrong, planet masses can be biased.
  • domain assumption Iodine cell forward model yields accurate relative RVs
    Standard California Planet Search procedure (Marcy & Butler 1992; Butler et al. 1996) is assumed to produce unbiased velocities.
  • domain assumption Stellar parameters from SME, SpecMatch, and isoclassify are accurate
    Stellar masses and radii come from these pipelines; systematic errors propagate directly to planet radii and masses.
  • domain assumption Adopted literature solutions are reliable
    For several systems the paper adopts previous analyses (e.g., HD 3167, HD 106315, GJ 9827, K2-3) instead of re-deriving them, assuming those are correct.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Planet Masses, Radii, and Orbits from NASA's K2 Mission." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/QWN4QGGX

@misc{pith2026250204436,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Planet Masses, Radii, and Orbits from NASA's K2 Mission},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/QWN4QGGX}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2502.04436}
}
read the original abstract

We report the masses, sizes, and orbital properties of 86 planets orbiting 55 stars observed by NASA's K2 Mission with follow-up Doppler measurements by the HIRES spectrometer at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the Automated Planet Finder at Lick Observatory. Eighty-one of the planets were discovered from their transits in the K2 photometry, while five were found based on subsequent Doppler measurements of transiting planet host stars. The sizes of the transiting planets range from Earth-size to larger than Jupiter (1-3 REarth is typical), while the orbital periods range from less than a day to a few months. For 32 of the planets, the Doppler signal was detected with significance greater than 5-sigma (51 were detected with >3-sigma significance). An important characteristic of this catalog is the use of uniform analysis procedures to determine stellar and planetary properties. This includes the transit search and fitting procedures applied to the K2 photometry, the Doppler fitting techniques applied to the radial velocities, and the spectral modeling to determine bulk stellar parameters. Such a uniform treatment will make the catalog useful for statistical studies of the masses, densities, and system architectures of exoplanetary systems. This work also serves as a data release for all previously unpublished RVs and associated stellar activity indicators obtained by our team for these systems, along with derived stellar and planet parameters.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2502.04436 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Flow chart of our K2 planet search. This paper describes elements of this process that cul￾minate in the measurement of planet masses; mea￾suring search completeness and computing planet occurrence will be described in subsequent papers. See Sec. 2 for details. the NOMAD, Tycho-2, Hipparcos, APASS, and UCAC4 catalogs to obtain photometric colors, proper motions, and parallaxes. Giant stars were removed based on redu… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Properties of planet host stars showing distributions of stellar temperature, radius, and iron abundance [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Distributions of planet size, orbital period, and flux received for the planets described in this paper. Most of the planets for which we made mass measurements have been validated using statis￾tical techniques (Montet et al. 2015; Crossfield et al. 2016; Livingston et al. 2018; Mayo et al. 2018) or through mass measurements. These systems can be identified in the tables below by their ‘K2 names’ (e.g., ‘K2-3’) or n… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (100 more)
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Mass-radius diagram for our full sample (orange circles, with triangles indicating 3σ upper mass limits) in the context of all known exoplanets with a ≥3σ mass measurements (NASA Exoplanet Archive, 2023/09/24). Point sizes are scaled so that more precise mass measureme…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Mass significance (Mp/σMp ) for all plan￾ets in our sample. 32 planet masses are measured at ≥5σ (vertical dashed line), while 51 are measured at ≥3σ. hot Jupiters, such as K2-99b (Sec. A.16) and WASP-47b (Sec. A.28). The masses of many of these planets are tightly con…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Our measured masses and radii for sub-Neptune-size planets. Points are color-coded based on the equilibrium temperatures of the planets, with marker size scaled so that more precise mass measurements have larger marker sizes; the lowest precision measurements are plott…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-85. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p028_8.png]
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-85. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p029_9.png]
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: De-trended, time series (top) and phase-folded (middle and bottom) light curve for K2-222. Transit epochs are marked by vertical ticks in the time series, and the maximum a posteriori transit model is shown as a colored line in the phase-folded panel. Gray points are …
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-222. Panel a shows the time series RVs from HIRES and HARPS with the best-fit Keplerian model in blue. The residuals to this model are shown in panel b. Panels c and d show the same RVs phased to the orbital periods of the planets with a…
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Periodogram search of the RVs for a third planet orbiting K2-222. The black line shows the normalized difference in χ 2 for the adopted two-planet model ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p033_12.png]
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-236. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p034_13.png]
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-236. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p036_14.png]
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-418. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p037_15.png]
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-418. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p039_16.png]
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-277. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p040_17.png]
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-277. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p042_18.png]
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-261. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p043_19.png]
Figure 20
Figure 20. Figure 20: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-261. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p044_20.png]
Figure 21
Figure 21. Figure 21: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-100. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p046_21.png]
Figure 22
Figure 22. Figure 22: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-100. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p048_22.png]
Figure 23
Figure 23. Figure 23: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-31. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p049_23.png]
Figure 24
Figure 24. Figure 24: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-31. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p053_24.png]
Figure 25
Figure 25. Figure 25: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-39. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p054_25.png]
Figure 26
Figure 26. Figure 26: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-39. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p055_26.png]
Figure 27
Figure 27. Figure 27: Periodogram search of the RVs showing no evidence for a second planet orbiting K2-39. Lines and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p056_27.png]
Figure 28
Figure 28. Figure 28: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-229. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p056_28.png]
Figure 29
Figure 29. Figure 29: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-229. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p057_29.png]
Figure 30
Figure 30. Figure 30: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-111. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p058_30.png]
Figure 31
Figure 31. Figure 31: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-111. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p060_31.png]
Figure 32
Figure 32. Figure 32: Periodogram search of the RVs showing no evidence for a second planet orbiting K2-111. Lines and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p061_32.png]
Figure 33
Figure 33. Figure 33: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-99. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p061_33.png]
Figure 34
Figure 34. Figure 34: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-99. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p063_34.png]
Figure 35
Figure 35. Figure 35: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-265. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p064_35.png]
Figure 36
Figure 36. Figure 36: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-265. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p066_36.png]
Figure 37
Figure 37. Figure 37: Periodogram search of the RVs showing no evidence for a second planet orbiting K2-265. The period with the most significant periodogram peak is at 32 d. Lines and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p067_37.png]
Figure 38
Figure 38. Figure 38: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-38. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p067_38.png]
Figure 39
Figure 39. Figure 39: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-38. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p068_39.png]
Figure 40
Figure 40. Figure 40: Periodogram search of the RVs showing no evidence for a second planet orbiting K2-38. Lines and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p069_40.png]
Figure 41
Figure 41. Figure 41: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-73. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p069_41.png]
Figure 42
Figure 42. Figure 42: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-73. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p070_42.png]
Figure 43
Figure 43. Figure 43: Periodogram search of the RVs showing no evidence for a second planet orbiting K2-73. Lines and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p071_43.png]
Figure 44
Figure 44. Figure 44: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting WASP-107. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p071_44.png]
Figure 45
Figure 45. Figure 45: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-66. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p074_45.png]
Figure 46
Figure 46. Figure 46: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-66. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p077_46.png]
Figure 47
Figure 47. Figure 47: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-36. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p078_47.png]
Figure 48
Figure 48. Figure 48: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-36. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p079_48.png]
Figure 49
Figure 49. Figure 49: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-105. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p080_49.png]
Figure 50
Figure 50. Figure 50: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-105. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p082_50.png]
Figure 51
Figure 51. Figure 51: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-214. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p083_51.png]
Figure 52
Figure 52. Figure 52: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-214. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p085_52.png]
Figure 53
Figure 53. Figure 53: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-220. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p086_53.png]
Figure 54
Figure 54. Figure 54: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-220. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p088_54.png]
Figure 55
Figure 55. Figure 55: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-110. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p089_55.png]
Figure 56
Figure 56. Figure 56: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-110. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p092_56.png]
Figure 57
Figure 57. Figure 57: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting WASP-47. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p093_57.png]
Figure 58
Figure 58. Figure 58: RVs and Keplerian model for WASP-47. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p094_58.png]
Figure 59
Figure 59. Figure 59: Periodogram search of the RVs showing no evidence for a fifth planet orbiting WASP-47. Lines and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p095_59.png]
Figure 60
Figure 60. Figure 60: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-79. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p095_60.png]
Figure 61
Figure 61. Figure 61: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-79. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p098_61.png]
Figure 62
Figure 62. Figure 62: Periodogram search of the RVs showing no evidence for a second planet orbiting K2-79. Lines and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p099_62.png]
Figure 63
Figure 63. Figure 63: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planets orbiting K2-106. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p099_63.png]
Figure 64
Figure 64. Figure 64: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-106. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p100_64.png]
Figure 65
Figure 65. Figure 65: Periodogram search of the RVs showing no evidence for a third planet orbiting K2-106. Lines and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p101_65.png]
Figure 66
Figure 66. Figure 66: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-98. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p101_66.png]
Figure 67
Figure 67. Figure 67: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-98. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p103_67.png]
Figure 68
Figure 68. Figure 68: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting EPIC 213546283. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p104_68.png]
Figure 69
Figure 69. Figure 69: RVs and Keplerian model for EPIC 213546283. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p105_69.png]
Figure 70
Figure 70. Figure 70: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-199. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p106_70.png]
Figure 71
Figure 71. Figure 71: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-199. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p107_71.png]
Figure 72
Figure 72. Figure 72: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting EPIC 245991048. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p109_72.png]
Figure 73
Figure 73. Figure 73: RVs and Keplerian model for EPIC 245991048. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p112_73.png]
Figure 74
Figure 74. Figure 74: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-32. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p113_74.png]
Figure 75
Figure 75. Figure 75: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-32. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p114_75.png]
Figure 76
Figure 76. Figure 76: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-62. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p115_76.png]
Figure 77
Figure 77. Figure 77: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-62. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p116_77.png]
Figure 78
Figure 78. Figure 78: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-189. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p118_78.png]
Figure 79
Figure 79. Figure 79: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-189. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p119_79.png]
Figure 80
Figure 80. Figure 80: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-10. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p121_80.png]
Figure 81
Figure 81. Figure 81: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-10. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p123_81.png]
Figure 82
Figure 82. Figure 82: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-245. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p124_82.png]
Figure 83
Figure 83. Figure 83: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-245. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p126_83.png]
Figure 84
Figure 84. Figure 84: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-216. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p127_84.png]
Figure 85
Figure 85. Figure 85: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-216. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p129_85.png]
Figure 86
Figure 86. Figure 86: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-280. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p130_86.png]
Figure 87
Figure 87. Figure 87: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-280. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p132_87.png]
Figure 88
Figure 88. Figure 88: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-37. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p133_88.png]
Figure 89
Figure 89. Figure 89: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-37. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p135_89.png]
Figure 90
Figure 90. Figure 90: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-180. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p136_90.png]
Figure 91
Figure 91. Figure 91: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-180. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p138_91.png]
Figure 92
Figure 92. Figure 92: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-27. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p139_92.png]
Figure 93
Figure 93. Figure 93: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-27. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p141_93.png]
Figure 94
Figure 94. Figure 94: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-181. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p142_94.png]
Figure 95
Figure 95. Figure 95: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-181. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p144_95.png]
Figure 96
Figure 96. Figure 96: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting EPIC 245943455. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p145_96.png]
Figure 97
Figure 97. Figure 97: RVs and Keplerian model for EPIC 245943455. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p146_97.png]
Figure 98
Figure 98. Figure 98: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-61. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p147_98.png]
Figure 99
Figure 99. Figure 99: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-61. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p148_99.png]
Figure 100
Figure 100. Figure 100: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-121. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p149_100.png]
Figure 101
Figure 101. Figure 101: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-121. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p151_101.png]
Figure 102
Figure 102. Figure 102: Time series (top) and phase-folded (bottom) light curve for the planet orbiting K2-18. Plot formatting is the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p152_102.png]
Figure 103
Figure 103. Figure 103: RVs and Keplerian model for K2-18. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p154_103.png]
Figure 104
Figure 104. Figure 104: RVs and Keplerian model for HD 89345. Symbols, lines, and annotations are similar to those in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p155_104.png]

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  1. Dynamically Selected Mass-Radius Relationship for Low Mass Exoplanets

    astro-ph.EP 2026-07 conditional novelty 6.0 of 10

    Planets inferred to have suffered giant collisions are more massive than pristine ones but retain comparable hydrogen envelope fractions, implying collisions occurred before disk gas dispersal.

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 8, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.