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Solar Orbiter's 2024 Major Flare Campaigns: An Overview

T0 review · 3 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-08-15 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read 2-second solar flare movies show never-before-seen dynamics

desk verdict A solid, genuinely useful campaign-overview paper whose main quantitative claim about artifact-free 2 s EUV imaging is slightly ahead of the evidence it shows; worth publishing after minor revision. read the letter →

arxiv 2505.07472 v1 pith:7QQNXDO4 submitted 2025-05-12 astro-ph.SR

Daniel F. Ryan , Laura A. Hayes , Hannah Collier , Graham S. Kerr , Andrew R. Inglis , David Williams , Andrew P. Walsh , Miho Janvier
show 12 more authors
Daniel Müller David Berghmans Cis Verbeeck Emil Kraaikamp Peter R. Young Therese A. Kucera Säm Krucker Muriel Z. Stiefel Daniele Calchetti Katharine K. Reeves Sabrina Savage Vanessa Polito
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.SR
keywords solarflaresOrbiterEUI/HRIEUVSTIXSPICEextremeultravioletimaginghardX-rayspectroscopyOrrall-Zirkereffect
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The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

Across two dedicated observing windows in March/April and October 2024, Solar Orbiter pointed its full remote-sensing suite at two flare-productive active regions and captured 22 flares from B- to M-class. The paper argues that the 0.04-second short-exposure images from EUI/HRI EUV, repeated every two seconds, deliver the first non-saturated, high-resolution extreme-ultraviolet movies of flare plasma on the timescales of impulsive energy release, revealing fine structure and fast dynamics that earlier EUV imagers blurred or hid behind saturation. Combined with STIX hard X-ray imaging of accelerated electrons, SPICE slit spectroscopy, PHI magnetograms, and coordinated Earth-based observations, the dataset is offered as a new observational window on reconnection, energy release, and particle acceleration, and as a proof of concept for future flare-dedicated missions.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing observing mode is EUI/HRI EUV's short-exposure cycle: six 0.04-second images followed by one 2-second image, repeated to give a 2-second cadence for the short exposures and a 16-second cadence for the long ones. The short exposures keep bright flare kernels below saturation on CMOS detectors that do not bloom like the CCDs of earlier EUV imagers, while the long exposures retain faint surroundings; the two can be combined into non-saturated high-dynamic-range images. Onboard compression kept the 2-second cadence within telemetry limits, with a lossless scheme in March that clipped dim pixels and a lossy scheme in April that preserved more faint structure, and the comparison of the two schemes is itself part of the argument about what the new observations can show.

What would settle it

Measure the intensity fluctuations at 2-second cadence in a quiet, non-flaring patch of the lossy April frames and compare them with the lossless March frames: if the quiet-patch variability matches the compression-noise level rather than a solar signal, the fine-scale fast dynamics seen in the lossy movies may be instrumental. A cleaner test is to inject synthetic faint moving kernels into raw frames before compression and check whether they are recovered without spurious flicker.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The paper's central claim is that the 2024 campaigns produced higher spatial resolution, higher cadence, non-saturated EUV images of coronal flare plasma than any previously achieved, and that these images reveal structure and dynamics on spatial and temporal scales never before seen. The evidence includes two-second-cadence 174 Å short-exposure movies that track flare ribbons, footpoints, and newly formed loops without the saturation and blooming that cripple simultaneous AIA images; hard X-ray light curves from STIX that the EUV emission closely tracks; and first high-cadence, spatially resolved Lyman line spectroscopy of flares from SPICE. The paper also reports that the March 19 M2.2 flare shows EUV fine structure during the impulsive phase and loop emission in the decay phase, and that optically thick foreground material can distort limb EUV measurements.

Load-bearing premise

The central 'never before seen' claim rests on the 0.04-second short exposures being truly un-saturated and on the onboard data compression, especially the lossy scheme used in April, not creating the fast small-scale flicker; the paper shows images and compares compression schemes but does not quantitatively validate this.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • Flare energy release can now be imaged in the EUV at the same few-second timescales where hard X-ray studies have already seen impulsive variations, so EUV and HXR signatures can be matched event by event.
  • Combining the 0.04-second and 2-second exposures yields non-saturated, roughly 21-bit dynamic-range images of flares, giving a way to separate very bright kernels from surrounding fainter structure.
  • The lossy compression scheme used in April proved better for capturing fast dynamics in dim plasma, so future campaigns should favour it when faint-feature evolution is the science target.
  • The first high-cadence, spatially resolved Lyman-β and Lyman-γ flare spectroscopy provides a new diagnostic for studying energy deposition in flare ribbons, even though no clear Orrall-Zirker signal was seen in the preliminary analysis.
  • The operational success demonstrates that repeated Major Flare campaigns with tuned modes are feasible and worth scheduling around future perihelia.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the 2-second EUV variability is genuinely solar, it supplies a spatial and temporal reference for interpreting fast hard X-ray pulsations, potentially locating where electron acceleration episodes happen within the flare arcade.
  • A quantitative cross-check of the two compression schemes on identical scenes, for example by injecting synthetic compact brightenings into raw frames before compression, could settle whether the April lossy data introduce small-scale flicker; the paper's qualitative comparison leaves that open.
  • The observed motions of optically thick foreground material at the limb imply that 174 Å intensity time series from limb flares need a foreground-blocking correction before being read as coronal emission changes.
  • The null Orrall-Zirker result at 5.1-second cadence, combined with the predicted 1–5 second transient lifetime, suggests that a dedicated faster-cadence EUV spectrometer would be needed to detect non-thermal protons this way.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 6 minor

Summary. This paper presents an overview of Solar Orbiter's Major Flare SOOP campaigns conducted in March/April and October 2024. It describes the scientific goals (probing flare plasma evolution on impulsive timescales, searching for the Orrall-Zirker effect, and exploring 3D flare geometry), the operational planning and instrument configurations (EUI/HRI_EUV 174 A with 0.04 s short exposures at 2 s cadence, SPICE sit-and-stare spectroscopy, STIX, and PHI/HRT), and the coordination with Hinode, IRIS, EOVSA, SDO, and GOES. The campaigns observed 22 flares from B- to M-class, with EUI/HRI_EUV providing short-exposure images that are claimed to be non-saturated. Initial findings include impulsive 174 A emission matching STIX 15-25 keV profiles, a comparison with AIA showing finer spatial and temporal structure, SPICE observations of hot and cool flare plasma, and a caution about optically thick foreground material affecting limb observations. The paper concludes that EUI/HRI_EUV obtained higher spatial resolution, higher cadence, non-saturated EUV images of coronal flare plasma than previously achieved, revealing dynamics on scales never before seen.

Significance. If the central observational claim holds, the dataset is a unique resource for flare physics: 2 s, roughly 200-300 km EUV imaging of flaring coronal plasma combined with STIX HXR imaging and spectroscopy and SPICE slit spectroscopy. The paper's value as a citable overview and data resource is substantial, especially given the openly available data on SOAR and the supplementary movies. The authors are transparent about limitations: no Orrall-Zirker detection was made, the stereoscopy goal was not achieved, SPICE has a complicated PSF, and optically thick foreground material complicates limb events. The main risk is the Section 7 claim that the EUI/HRI_EUV images are 'non-saturated' and reveal 'structure and dynamics on spatial and temporal scales never before seen'; this claim is currently supported mainly by qualitative image comparisons rather than quantitative instrument validation.

major comments (3)
  1. [Section 3.2.1, Figure 2; Section 5.2; Section 7] The central claim that the 0.04 s short-exposure EUI/HRI_EUV images are non-saturated is not quantitatively established. Section 5.2 states that the normal 2 s exposures saturate and that structure in saturated regions 'can be determined from the short exposure images,' but no DN histograms, peak-count values relative to full well, or linearity checks are provided for the short exposures. Without demonstrating that the brightest flare kernels remain below the nonlinearity/full-well threshold, the 'non-saturated' descriptor and the fine-scale structure in those kernels are not supported. Please add a quantitative validation for representative events, such as the March 19 M2.2 and March 23 M2.5 flares, showing the margin between measured peak counts and the detector's full-well or nonlinearity limit.
  2. [Section 6, Figure 9; Movies 4 and 5] The lossy compression scheme used in the April windows is acknowledged to add 'greater compression noise,' but the paper provides only a qualitative visual comparison in Figure 9. Since the Section 7 claim of 'dynamics never before seen' draws in part on April data, the paper should quantify the compression artifacts. For example, compare compressed and uncompressed versions of the same frames, measure the noise in quiet regions, or show that the 2 s variability in flaring pixels exceeds the compression-noise floor. As written, the possibility that some of the reported small-scale temporal variability is codec-induced is not excluded.
  3. [Section 5.3; Section 7] Section 5.3 correctly warns that moving optically thick foreground material can introduce apparent temporal variations in EUV intensity for limb events. However, the Section 7 conclusion does not carry this caveat, and Figure 6 uses an April limb event to illustrate footpoint-to-loop evolution. Please specify how foreground absorption is accounted for in the events used to support the 'never before seen' claim, or restrict the claim to disk observations where this complication is absent.
minor comments (6)
  1. [Section 3.4.2] The IRIS observing intervals are labelled '2020-03-19T19:39 UT' and '2020-03-23T22:35 UT'; these should be '2024' dates.
  2. [Abstract and Table 3] The abstract says 'over 22 flares' while the text and Table 3 list exactly 22; please make the count consistent.
  3. [Section 3.2.1] The phrase 'The short exposure images are strongly compressed (to a few percent of the regular images)' should clarify that this is a data-volume reduction, not a reduction in pixel count or spatial resolution.
  4. [Appendix A, Movie 5] There is a typo: '20204 April 4th' should be '2024 April 4th'.
  5. [Author affiliations and Section 6] There are minor typographical errors: 'Labratory' should be 'Laboratory' in affiliation 1, and 'demonstated' should be 'demonstrated' in Section 6.
  6. [Table 3] For flares not observed by EUI/HRI_EUV (footnote d), the 'Time' column is defined by the EUI/HRI_EUV main peak; please clarify how those peak times are determined for those events, for example from STIX or GOES.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the paper is an observational campaign overview with no fitted parameters, predictions, or derivation chain that reduces to its inputs.

full rationale

This manuscript is a campaign overview rather than a derivation or modeling paper. It contains no equations whose outputs coincide with their inputs, no fitted parameters that are then relabeled as predictions, and no ansatz smuggled in via citation. The central claim in Section 7, that EUI/HRI EUV obtained 'higher spatial resolution, higher cadence, non-saturated EUV images of coronal flare plasma than previously achieved, and have revealed structure and dynamics on spatial and temporal scales never before seen,' is an observational assertion supported by the presented images, light curves, and comparison with AIA. The paper does cite prior and in-preparation works by overlapping authors (e.g., Collier et al. 2024b for compression telemetry, Ryan et al. 2024a,b for 3D X-ray source geometry, Hayes et al. 2025 in prep. and Kerr et al. 2025 in prep. for follow-up analyses), but these citations are contextual or deferred, not load-bearing for the paper's own conclusions. The skeptical concern that the 'non-saturated' and artifact-free character of the short-exposure images is not quantitatively validated (e.g., no DN histograms for linearity, no quantitative comparison of lossy compression effects) is a correctness or evidentiary risk, not a circularity: the claim could be false or under-supported, but it is not true by construction or by self-citation. No circular step can be exhibited under the required standard, so the appropriate score is 0.

Assumptions & free parameters 0 free parameters · 3 assumptions · 0 invented entities

No free parameters are fitted and no new entities are introduced. The paper depends on standard solar-flare interpretive models and on one unpublished calibration method for Earth-invisible flare classes.

assumptions (3)
  • domain assumption The standard CSHKP flare model (Carmichael, Sturrock, Kopp, Pneuman) describes the relationship between flare footpoints, loops, and reconnection.
    Invoked in Section 5.1 to interpret the April 5 flare images as footpoint emission followed by a cooling loop.
  • domain assumption The Orrall-Zirker effect produces a broad, redshifted Ly-beta emission feature that SPICE can detect with 4.8-5.1 s cadence.
    Used to design the SPICE spectral windows and exposure times in Section 3.2.2; based on Orrall and Zirker (1976) and Kerr et al. (2023).
  • domain assumption The STIX background detector can be calibrated as a proxy for GOES X-ray class for flares not visible from Earth.
    Used to assign GOES classes to April 2024 flares in Table 3; relies on Stiefel et al. (2025 submitted), which is not yet peer-reviewed or publicly available.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Solar Orbiter's 2024 Major Flare Campaigns: An Overview." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/7QQNXDO4

@misc{pith2026250507472,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Solar Orbiter's 2024 Major Flare Campaigns: An Overview},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/7QQNXDO4}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2505.07472}
}
read the original abstract

Solar Orbiter conducted a series of flare-optimised observing campaigns in 2024 utilising the Major Flare Solar Orbiter Observing Plan (SOOP). Dedicated observations were performed during two distinct perihelia intervals in March/April and October, during which over 22 flares were observed, ranging from B- to M-class. These campaigns leveraged high-resolution and high-cadence observations from the mission's remote-sensing suite, including the High-Resolution EUV Imager (EUI/HRI_EUV), the Spectrometer/Telescope for Imaging X-rays (STIX), the Spectral Imaging of the Coronal Environment (SPICE) spectrometer, and the High Resolution Telescope of the Polarimetric and Helioseismic Imager (PHI/HRT), as well as coordinated ground-based and Earth-orbiting observations. EUI/HRI_EUV operating in short-exposure modes, provided two-second-cadence, non-saturated EUV images, revealing structures and dynamics on scales not previously observed. Simultaneously, STIX captured hard X-ray imaging and spectroscopy of accelerated electrons, while SPICE acquired EUV slit spectroscopy to probe chromospheric and coronal responses. Together, these observations offer an unprecedented view of magnetic reconnection, energy release, particle acceleration, and plasma heating across a broad range of temperatures and spatial scales. These campaigns have generated a rich dataset that will be the subject of numerous future studies addressing Solar Orbiter's top-level science goal: "How do solar eruptions produce energetic particle radiation that fills the heliosphere?". This paper presents the scientific motivations, operational planning, and observational strategies behind the 2024 flare campaigns, along with initial insights into the observed flares. We also discuss lessons learned for optimizing future Solar Orbiter Major Flare campaigns and provide a resource for researchers aiming to utilize these unique observations.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2505.07472 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Heliographic Stonyhurst positions of Solar Orbiter on days of the various Solar Orbiter Major Flare campaign observing windows. during RSW 17. These included the approach to, and transition through, the 5th and 6th perihelia of Solar Orbiter’s nominal mission phase. Solar activity was expected to be substantially higher during these RSWs than previous oness due to the evolution of the solar cycle. The campaigns were… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Schematic of the EUI/HRIEUV observing mode used in the 2024 Solar Orbiter Major Flare campaigns. Six short exposure (0.04 s) images are followed by one long exposure (2 s), before the cycle repeats. Accounting for detector readout time, this results in a 16 s long exposure cadence and a 2 s short exposure cadence (except when the long exposure image is taken). In order to minimise saturation and maximise cadence and… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Fields of view of instruments used in the Solar Orbiter Major Flare campaign for each observing window. They are overlaid on the EUI/FSI 174 ˚A image closest to the middle of the window. Full-disk instruments are not shown. SOLA: main.tex; 14 September 2025; 22:16; p. 13 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_3.png] view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (6 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p017_4.png]
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: PHI/HRT magnetograms of NOAA AR 13615 taken during the March 19th (left) and March 23rd (right) observing windows of the Solar Orbiter Major Flare campaign. optical aberrations are responsible for a more challenging reduction of the April windows observations and inter…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Two EUI/HRIEUV 174 ˚A images, taken from the accompanying movie, of the estimated C9.9 flare of April 5th. At 20:10 (top image), the brightest emission is from low altitude footpoint/ribbons sources, while at 20:21 (bottom image), it is from a newly formed flare loop l…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: A comparison of AIA 171 ˚A and EUI/HRIEUV 174 ˚A short exposure flare obser￾vations for the March 19th flare. The lightcurves show normalised EUI/HRIEUV (blue) and AIA (orange) emission integrated over the same field of view. The AIA time axis (upper, orange) has been …
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Hot and cool flare emission from the 23rd March 2024, as observed by SPICE. In the top panel a space-time map of Fe xx (∼10 MK) emission, is shown, with contours representing H i Ly β (∼ 10 kK) emission. Both spectral lines were integrated in wavelength within the rang…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: A comparison of EUI/HRIEUV obtained using the lossless (panel a; 2024 March 19, disk-centre) and lossy (panel b; 2024 April 5, solar limb) compression schemes used during the 2024 Solar Orbiter Major Flare campaigns. Note that low intensity pixels were clipped onboard …

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Forward citations

Cited by 2 Pith papers

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    High-resolution Solar Orbiter observations of a failed filament eruption reveal repeated small-scale magnetic reconnection events, which the authors call persistent magnetic cutting, as the driver of filament instability.

  2. Extremely diverse coronal jets accompanying an erupting filament captured by Solar Orbiter

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 15, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.