Pith. sign in

REVIEW 3 major objections 5 minor 2 cited by

Optical Strong Line Ratios Cannot Distinguish Between Stellar Populations and Accreting Black Holes at High Ionization Parameters and Low Metallicities

T0 review · 3 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-06 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗

Pith's one-line read Optical strong-line ratios cannot separately identify stars and black holes at high ionization and low metallicity.

desk verdict A timely calibration paper: the model grid convincingly shows OHNO loses discriminating power at high U and low Z, but the thin AGN SED grid and unquantified 'near-complete' contamination claim need revision before the strongest conclusions stand. read the letter →

arxiv 2506.21660 v1 pith:WWO2AWLD submitted 2025-06-26 astro-ph.GA

Nikko J. Cleri , Grace M. Olivier , Bren E. Backhaus , Joel Leja , Casey Papovich , Jonathan R. Trump , Pablo Arrabal Haro , Veronique Buat
show 19 more authors
Denis Burgarella Emilie Burnham Antonello Calabro Jonathan H. Cohn Justin W. Cole Kelcey Davis Mark Dickinson Steven L. Finkelstein Ray Garner III Michaela Hirschmann Weida Hu Taylor A. Hutchison Dale D. Kocevski Anton M. Koekemoer Rebecca L. Larson Zach J. Lewis Michael V. Maseda Lise-Marie Seille Raymond C. Simons
This is my paper
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords photoionizationmodelsBPTdiagramOHNOAGNdiagnosticsionizationparametergas-phasemetallicityhigh-redshiftgalaxiesJWSTspectroscopy
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper argues that the rest-frame optical strong-line diagnostics [N II]-BPT, VO87, and OHNO are driven mainly by the ionization parameter and gas-phase metallicity rather than by the shape of the ionizing spectrum. At high ionization parameter (log U ≥ −2.75) and low metallicity (Zgas/Zsun ≤ 0.4), stellar population and black hole accretion models overlap significantly, sometimes nearly completely, so these diagrams cannot reliably separate stars from AGN in high-redshift JWST galaxies. The OHNO diagram is especially contaminated, with the AGN region defined at z~1 almost fully populated by stellar models under these gas conditions. The paper further shows that emission lines requiring photons above 54 eV, such as He II and [Ne V], break this degeneracy. Misclassification at high redshift would distort both AGN demographics and star formation rate estimates.

What carries the argument

The central machinery is a large Cloudy photoionization model grid with two families of ionizing continua: single-burst BPASS stellar population models (varying IMF, age, metallicity, and binarity) and OPTXAGNF black hole accretion disk SEDs (varying black hole mass). The ionizing continua are divided into four ionization zones (low, intermediate, high, and very high), and the analysis compares the ionizing photon budgets in each zone. The key behaviour is that the optical strong-line ratios trace the ratio of high-to-low ionization zone photons, where stars and AGN overlap, while the very-high-ionization zone (>54 eV) separates them. This is why lines such as He II and [Ne V] break the degeneracy that the optical strong-line diagnostics cannot resolve.

What would settle it

A direct test: obtain a sample of high-redshift (z~5–9) galaxies with measured ionization parameters and metallicities, and split them into X-ray-detected and X-ray-undetected (likely star-forming) subsamples. If X-ray-undetected star-forming galaxies with log U ≥ −2.75 and Zgas/Zsun ≤ 0.4 systematically fall inside the OHNO AGN region, the paper's contamination claim is verified; if they separate cleanly from X-ray-detected AGN in this regime, the overlap is a model artifact rather than a physical degeneracy.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that the position of a photoionization model in the three optical strong-line ratio planes is controlled more by the ionization parameter and the gas-phase metallicity than by whether the ionizing source is a stellar population or an accreting black hole. Using a large grid of Cloudy models powered by BPASS stellar populations and OPTXAGNF black hole accretion SEDs, the paper shows that in the high-log U, low-metallicity regime the stellar and AGN models intermingle in the [N II]-BPT, VO87, and OHNO diagrams, so these diagnostics are highly degenerate for classifying the ionizing source. The OHNO diagram is dominated by ionization parameter because both of its axes probe similar ionization energies, making it a poor AGN identifier at the gas conditions increasingly common at high redshift. The paper demonstrates that the degeneracy is grounded in the shape of the continuum below 54 eV, where stellar and AGN photon budgets overlap, and that adding constraints from very-high-ionization (>54 eV) lines immediately separates the two classes.

Load-bearing premise

The model grid assumes that BPASS single-burst stellar populations and the OPTXAGNF accretion disk SEDs bracket the true ionizing continua of real high-redshift sources, including effects from shocks, binary interactions, and little red dots that the models do not include.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • The OHNO diagram should not be used alone as an AGN diagnostic for high-redshift galaxies, especially at log U ≥ −2.75 and Zgas/Zsun ≤ 0.4, where stellar models heavily contaminate the AGN region.
  • Optical strong-line ratios alone cannot uniquely determine the dominant ionizing source for individual high-redshift sources, even with deep JWST spectroscopy.
  • Very-high-ionization lines (>54 eV), such as He II or [Ne V], are strong indicators of an ionizing source harder than normal stellar populations and should be targeted to break the degeneracy.
  • The AGN classifications derived from the [N II]-BPT, VO87, and OHNO diagrams at high redshift may require reconsideration, with consequences for AGN demographics and star formation rate measurements.
  • The results motivate combining optical strong-line ratios with multiwavelength data (X-ray, radio, and higher-ionization lines) when classifying high-redshift sources.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The degeneracy is likely to persist even if the black hole SED models are refined, because the overlap in the <54 eV continuum is intrinsic to the comparable ionization-parameter and metallicity dependence of the line ratios rather than a specific SED choice.
  • Additional ionizing sources not included in the grid, such as shocks and high-mass X-ray binaries, would probably enlarge the contaminated region rather than separate the two classes.
  • A practical testable extension is to combine OHNO with upper limits on [Ne V] or He II: sources that are OHNO-AGN but lack >54 eV emission would be identified as high-ionization star-forming galaxies, directly testing the paper's interpretation.
  • If high-redshift galaxies indeed have systematically higher ionization parameters, the fraction of sources classified as AGN purely from optical strong-line ratios is likely overestimated.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

3 major / 5 minor

Summary. This paper presents a large Cloudy photoionization model grid using BPASS v2.2.1 single-burst stellar population SEDs and Done et al. (2012) OPTXAGNF black hole accretion SEDs, with varying stellar age, IMF, binarity, metallicity, density, ionization parameter, and black hole mass. The authors map these models onto the [N II]-BPT, VO87, and OHNO diagrams and show that at log U >= -2.75 and Zgas/Zsun <= 0.4 the stellar and black hole models overlap substantially, with the OHNO AGN region suffering the largest stellar contamination. They argue that the position in these diagrams is driven primarily by ionization parameter and gas-phase metallicity rather than by the ionizing source, and that lines tracing >54 eV photons (e.g., He II, [Ne V]) break the degeneracy. A Bayesian-style inference applied to the broad-line AGN GS_3073 illustrates the degeneracy in the [N II]-BPT plane. The full model library is publicly released.

Significance. The subject is timely and important: JWST spectroscopy routinely places high-redshift galaxies in the OHNO AGN region, and the paper provides a systematic model-based warning against interpreting that as AGN detections. The main strengths are the broad stellar grid, the use of two independent SED families through Cloudy, the explicit focus on the U-Z plane rather than marginal composites, and the public release of the model library. The two robustness concerns highlighted by the stress test—the narrow one-parameter AGN SED family and the lack of a quantitative overlap fraction—are real and are addressed in my major comments; neither is fatal in principle, but both need work before the strong wording of the title and abstract is fully supported.

major comments (3)
  1. [Section 2.2 and Section 4.3.1] The AGN models are a one-parameter family in black hole mass at fixed log Lbol/LEdd = -1, fixed corona temperature/optical depth, and fixed soft-excess parameters. The central claim that the ionizing source cannot be distinguished from line ratios assumes this family brackets the SED shapes of real high-z AGN. The caveat in Section 4.3.1 acknowledges LINERs and little red dots but does not test the sensitivity. I request a concrete robustness test: recompute the overlap fractions in Figures 8-10 while varying Lbol/LEdd (e.g., log Lbol/LEdd from -2 to 0) and at least one corona parameter, or using an alternative empirical SED (e.g., NGC 5548 or the Mathews-Ferland/Cloudy table AGN). Without this test the conclusion is conditional on the particular OPTXAGNF settings.
  2. [Section 4.4 and Section 5, first bullet] The phrases 'significant and sometimes near-complete overlap' and 'near-complete contamination' are not quantified anywhere in the manuscript. Please report, for the stated U/Z slices, the fraction of BPASS models that fall above the AGN demarcation in each diagram and the fraction of AGN models that fall in the star-forming region, ideally with a prior weighting over the grid. This would turn the visual impression in Figures 8-10 into a statistical statement and would directly support the abstract's 'cannot distinguish' claim.
  3. [Section 3.2 and Figure 7] The posterior P(theta|data) is computed as a chi-square likelihood over an evenly spaced grid with uniform priors in eight model parameters, so the posterior mass is affected by the arbitrary density of grid points. Because the stellar grid is much denser than the AGN grid, the statement in Section 4.2 that the degeneracy persists 'even with the density of stellar models being much higher' is not a substitute for a physical prior or an explicit grid-density weighting. Please clarify that the inference is a grid-conditioned illustration rather than a probability over real sources, or add a sensitivity test with alternative priors.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Equation (6)] Please verify the OHNO demarcation against Backhaus et al. (2022); the factor 2.8 inside the parentheses and the -0.8 offset are not derived in the text and appear inconsistent with the usual form log([O III]/Hbeta) = 0.64 + 0.35 log([Ne III]/[O II]).
  2. [Figure 3 caption] The caption cites 'Kauffmann et al. 2001', but the text and reference list use Kauffmann et al. (2003); please correct the year.
  3. [Section 3.2] The phrase 'observed with with theR ∼ 1900 −3600' contains a duplicated 'with' and a missing space before 'R'.
  4. [Section 2.2] The hard Comptonization spectral index is given as 10; please confirm whether this is a typo for 1.0 or 2.0, as the value is far outside the usual AGN coronal range and would affect the hardest part of the continuum.
  5. [Figure 1 caption] Please state the IMF and metallicity used for the example stellar spectra, since these are held fixed in the figure.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the model overlap is an emergent result of external SED libraries processed through Cloudy, and the OHNO demarcation is used as a tested boundary, not as an input that forces the conclusion.

full rationale

The paper's central claim—that stellar and AGN photoionization models overlap in the [N II]-BPT, VO87, and OHNO planes at high ionization parameter and low metallicity—is an emergent property of the model grid, not an input. The stellar continua come from the external BPASS library (Stanway & Eldridge 2018) and the AGN continua from the external OPTXAGNF SEDs (Done et al. 2012); these are processed through Cloudy to produce line ratios. The resulting positions in diagnostic diagrams are then compared with published demarcation lines (Kewley et al. 2001; Kauffmann et al. 2003; Trump et al. 2015; Backhaus et al. 2022). No equation in the paper is defined in terms of the conclusion, and no fitted parameter is renamed as a prediction. The OHNO boundary is taken from prior work by the same group (Backhaus et al. 2022), but it is used as a fixed, externally published criterion to be tested, not as a premise that guarantees the overlap; the overlap would be visible even without that line because the stellar and AGN model points are shown to co-locate in the plane. The paper's acknowledged limitations—fixed Eddington ratio and corona parameters for AGN SEDs, exclusion of shocks and Population III stars—are coverage and representativeness concerns that could affect the quantitative extent of the overlap, but they do not make the derivation circular. The inference of log U and Z from line ratios is a forward-model mapping from model outputs back to inputs, which is the standard use of a photoionization grid, not a self-justifying prediction. Overall, the derivation chain is self-contained against external SED libraries and a public photoionization code, so the circularity score is 0.

Assumptions & free parameters 5 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

No new physical entities are introduced. The central claim rests on the representative-ness of two existing SED families (BPASS, OPTXAGNF) and on Cloudy's accuracy. The free parameters are the modeling choices, not quantities fit to the data being classified.

free parameters (5)
  • Ionization parameter grid boundaries = -4 < log U < -1
    The grid range is chosen by hand, not fit to data. The conclusions are shown to be most relevant for log U >= -2.75, but the boundaries affect how much overlap is visible.
  • Density values = nH = 10^2, 10^3 cm^-3 (stars), 10^2, 10^3, 10^4 (AGN)
    Only three density values are tested. Real high redshift galaxies may have a wider density distribution, and density affects line ratios such as [S II]/Halpha.
  • Eddington ratio of AGN models = log Lbol/LEdd = -1
    Fixed at a single value, which shapes the ionizing SED. The paper acknowledges that varying accretion rate would change the continuum.
  • Corona temperature and optical depth = kTe = 0.1 keV, tau = 10
    Chosen to match previous work, not fit to the data being explained. These parameters affect the hard continuum shape.
  • Abundance scaling = Grevesse et al. (2010) solar ratios, Zgas scaled directly with Zstar
    No alpha-enhancement or N/O variation is explored. The paper notes N/O sensitivity of the [N II]-BPT diagram. The choice affects the line ratios, especially [N II]/Halpha and [Ne III]/[O II].
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption Cloudy C23.01 provides a sufficiently accurate treatment of the photoionization and microphysics of the gas.
    The whole grid is built on Cloudy. The paper explicitly cites the Cloudy papers, but does not validate Cloudy's output against observed high redshift nebulae.
  • domain assumption The BPASS v2.2.1 single burst models represent the stellar ionizing continua of high redshift galaxies.
    Section 2.1 lists the BPASS grid. The paper acknowledges in Section 4.3.2 that shocks, X-ray binaries, and Population III stars are excluded.
  • domain assumption The Done et al. (2012) OPTXAGNF SEDs represent the ionizing continua of black hole accretion at high redshift.
    Section 2.2 sets the SED parameters. Section 4.3.1 lists AGN types not covered by these SEDs, including low luminosity AGN and little red dots.
  • domain assumption A plane-parallel, single cloud geometry is adequate for predicting the strong line ratios used here.
    Section 2 states the plane parallel assumption explicitly, citing Katz et al. (2023) for the caveat.
  • standard math The demarcation lines of Kewley et al. (2001), Kauffmann et al. (2003), Trump et al. (2015), and Backhaus et al. (2022) are the correct operational definitions of AGN versus star forming regions.
    The paper tests these lines as given; it does not re-derive them. This is a reasonable benchmark choice.

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Optical Strong Line Ratios Cannot Distinguish Between Stellar Populations and Accreting Black Holes at High Ionization Parameters and Low Metallicities." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/WWO2AWLD

@misc{pith2026250621660,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Optical Strong Line Ratios Cannot Distinguish Between Stellar Populations and Accreting Black Holes at High Ionization Parameters and Low Metallicities},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/WWO2AWLD}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2506.21660}
}
read the original abstract

High-redshift observations from JWST indicate that optical strong line ratios do not carry the same constraining power as they do at low redshifts. Critically, this prevents a separation between stellar- and black hole-driven ionizing radiation, thereby obscuring both active galactic nuclei demographics and star formation rates. To investigate this, we compute a large suite of photoionization models from Cloudy powered by stellar populations and accreting black holes over a large grid of ages, metallicities, initial mass functions, binarity, ionization parameters, densities, and black hole masses. We use these models to test three rest-frame optical strong line ratio diagnostics which have been designed to separate ionizing sources at low redshifts: the [NII]-BPT, VO87, and OHNO diagrams. We show that the position of a model in these diagrams is strongly driven by the ionization parameter (log U) and the gas-phase metallicity, often more so than the ionizing spectrum itself; in particular, there is significant overlap between stellar population and accreting black hole models at high log U and low Z. We show that the OHNO diagram is especially susceptible to large contamination of the AGN region defined at z=1 for stellar models with high log U and low Z, consistent with many observed JWST spectra at high redshift. We show that the optical line ratio diagnostics are most sensitive to the shape of the <54 eV ionizing continuum, and that the derived ionizing sources for a given set of optical strong line ratios can be highly degenerate. Finally, we demonstrate that very high ionization (>54 eV) emission lines that trace ionizing sources harder than normal stellar populations help to break the degeneracies present when using the strong line diagnostics alone, even in gas conditions consistent with those at high redshifts.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2506.21660 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Example ionizing spectra of four stellar population (gold) and three accreting black hole (blue) models used in this work. The annotations mark the four “zones” of ionization from D. A. Berg et al. (2021). The stellar populations shown are constant initial mass function and metallicity with varying age, and the black hole accretion disk models are shown with constant Lbol/LEdd and spins and varying black hole masses… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. The ratios of ionizing photon production Q in each of the D. A. Berg et al. (2021) zones of ionization shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. The [N II]-BPT (left), VO87 (center) and OHNO (right) diagrams with our suite of Cloudy models for BPASS stellar populations (gold circles) and black hole accretion disks (blue crosses). The lines show the demarcations for star formation and AGN (below and above the lines, respectively) for the [N II]-BPT, (G. Kauffmann et al. 2003; L. J. Kewley et al. 2001), VO87 (J. R. Trump et al. 2015), and OHNO (B. E. Backhaus … view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (7 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The [N II]-BPT diagram shown with our suite of photoionization models colored by ionization parameter (top left) and gas-phase metallicity (bottom left). The right panels show the posteriors P(θ|data) for ionization parameter (top right) and gas-phase metallicity (bott…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: The VO87 diagram shown with our suite of photoionization models colored by ionization parameter (top left) and gas-phase metallicity (bottom left). The right panels show the posteriors P(θ|data) for ionization parameter (top right) and gas-phase metallicity (bottom rig…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The OHNO diagram shown with our suite of photoionization models colored by ionization parameter (top left) and gas-phase metallicity (bottom left). The right panels show the posteriors P(θ|data) for ionization parameter (top right) and gas-phase metallicity (bottom rig…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: The inferred properties from our models for an observation in the [N II]-BPT plane, using the broad-line AGN GS_3073 from H. Übler et al. (2023) as an example. The top left panel shows the H. Übler et al. (2023) object with 1σ uncertainties in the [N II]-BPT plane. The…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: The [N II]-BPT diagram with our suite of Cloudy models for BPASS stellar populations (gold circles) and black hole accretion disks (blue crosses) in slices of ionization parameter (increasing up) and gas-phase metallicity (increasing to the right). The lines show the d…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: The VO87 diagram with our suite of Cloudy models for BPASS stellar populations (gold circles) and black hole accretion disks (blue crosses) in slices of ionization parameter (increasing up) and gas-phase metallicity (increasing to the right). The lines show the demarca…
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: The OHNO diagram with our suite of Cloudy models for BPASS stellar populations (gold circles) and black hole accretion disks (blue crosses) in slices of ionization parameter (increasing up) and gas-phase metallicity (increasing to the right). The lines show the demarc…

Discussion (0). Sign in to comment.

Forward citations

Cited by 2 Pith papers

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score. Full citation record

  1. Hunting Wandering 3<z<8 Black Holes: Spatial Offsets in Ionization Ratio and Continuum Emission

    astro-ph.GA 2026-06 unverdicted novelty 6.0 of 10

    JWST NIRSpec observations of high-redshift galaxies reveal spatial offsets in ionization structure for 12 out of 90 sources, proposed as signatures of wandering black holes.

  2. Discovery of Multiply Ionized Iron Emission Powered by an Active Galactic Nucleus in a z~7 Little Red Dot

    astro-ph.GA 2025-09 conditional novelty 6.0 of 10

    The z=6.68 Little Red Dot THRILS 46403 shows a 4.5 sigma [FeVII] line, the first robust coronal-line detection among z>5 LRDs, plus narrow Balmer absorption, supporting an AGN with direct sightlines to gas at or beyon...

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

206 extracted references · 20 canonical work pages · cited by 2 Pith papers

  1. [1]

    , " * write output.state after.block = add.period write newline

    ENTRY address archivePrefix author booktitle chapter doi edition editor eprint howpublished institution journal key month number organization pages publisher school series title misctitle type volume year version url label extra.label sort.label short.list INTEGERS output.state before.all mid.sentence after.sentence after.block FUNCTION init.state.consts ...

  2. [2]

    write newline

    " write newline "" before.all 'output.state := FUNCTION format.url url empty "" new.block "" url * "" * if FUNCTION format.eprint eprint empty "" archivePrefix empty "" archivePrefix "arXiv" = new.block " " eprint * " " * new.block " " eprint * " " * if if if FUNCTION format.doi doi empty "" " " doi * " " * if FUNCTION format.pid doi empty eprint empty ur...

  3. [3]

    602C `\.=

    thebibliography [1] 20pt to REFERENCES 6pt =0pt \@twocolumntrue 12pt -12pt 10pt plus 3pt =0pt =0pt =1pt plus 1pt =0pt =0pt -12pt =13pt plus 1pt =20pt =13pt plus 1pt \@M =10000 =-1.0em =0pt =0pt 0pt =0pt =1.0em @enumiv\@empty 10000 10000 `\.\@m \@noitemerr \@latex@warning Empty `thebibliography' environment \@ifnextchar \@reference \@latexerr Missing key o...

    arXiv 2017

  4. [4]

    L., Coe , D., et al

    Abdurro'uf , Larson , R. L., Coe , D., et al. 2024, title JWST NIRSpec High-resolution Spectroscopy of MACS0647 JD at z = 10.167: Resolved [O II] Doublet and Electron Density in an Early Galaxy , , 973, 47, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad6001

    doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad6001 2024

  5. [5]

    P., & Satyapal , S

    Abel , N. P., & Satyapal , S. 2008, title [Ne V] Emission in Optically Classified Starbursts , , 678, 686, 10.1086/529013

    doi:10.1086/529013 2008

  6. [6]

    2024, title A dynamical measure of the black hole mass in a quasar 11 billion years ago , , 627, 281, 10.1038/s41586-024-07053-4

    Abuter , R., Allouche , F., Amorim , A., et al. 2024, title A dynamical measure of the black hole mass in a quasar 11 billion years ago , , 627, 281, 10.1038/s41586-024-07053-4

    doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07053-4 2024

  7. [7]

    P., R \'o \.z a \'n ska , A., Czerny , B., Hryniewicz , K., & Ferland , G

    Adhikari , T. P., R \'o \.z a \'n ska , A., Czerny , B., Hryniewicz , K., & Ferland , G. J. 2016, title The Intermediate-line Region in Active Galactic Nuclei , , 831, 68, 10.3847/0004-637X/831/1/68

    doi:10.3847/0004-637x/831/1/68 2016

  8. [8]

    G., Dopita , M

    Allen , M. G., Dopita , M. A., & Tsvetanov , Z. I. 1998, title Ultraviolet Diagnostics for the Emission-Line Gas in Active Galaxies , , 493, 571, 10.1086/305145

    work page doi:10.1086/305145 1998

Show all 206 references
  1. [9]

    1978, title Properties of a Sample of Irregular Galaxies , , 70, 141

    Alloin , D., Bergeron , J., & Pelat , D. 1978, title Properties of a Sample of Irregular Galaxies , , 70, 141

    1978

  2. [10]

    2025, title New Methods of Identifying AGN in the Early Universe using Spectroscopy and Photometry in the JWST Era , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2501.09585, 10.48550/arXiv.2501.09585

    Arevalo Gonzalez , F., Braun , T., Trussler , J., et al. 2025, title New Methods of Identifying AGN in the Early Universe using Spectroscopy and Photometry in the JWST Era , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2501.09585, 10.48550/arXiv.2501.09585

    2025 doi

  3. [11]

    Arnaud , K. A. 1996, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 101, Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems V, ed. G. H. Jacoby & J. Barnes , 17

    1996

  4. [12]

    P., Tollerud , E

    Astropy Collaboration , Robitaille , T. P., Tollerud , E. J., et al. 2013, title Astropy: A community Python package for astronomy , , 558, A33, 10.1051/0004-6361/201322068

    2013 doi

  5. [13]

    E., Trump , J

    Backhaus , B. E., Trump , J. R., Cleri , N. J., et al. 2022, title CLEAR: Emission-line Ratios at Cosmic High Noon , , 926, 161, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac3919

    2022 doi

  6. [14]

    E., Trump , J

    Backhaus , B. E., Trump , J. R., Pirzkal , N., et al. 2024, title CEERS Key Paper. VIII. Emission-line Ratios from NIRSpec and NIRCam Wide-Field Slitless Spectroscopy at z > 2 , , 962, 195, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad1520

    2024 doi

  7. [15]

    E., Cleri , N

    Backhaus , B. E., Cleri , N. J., Trump , J. R., et al. 2025, title Emission-Line Diagnostics at z>4: [OIII]\ \ 4363/H , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2502.03519, 10.48550/arXiv.2502.03519

    2025 doi arXiv

  8. [16]

    A., Phillips , M

    Baldwin , J. A., Phillips , M. M., & Terlevich , R. 1981, title Classification parameters for the emission-line spectra of extragalactic objects. , , 93, 5, 10.1086/130766

    1981 doi

  9. [17]

    Balzano , V. A. 1983, title Star-burst galactic nuclei. , , 268, 602, 10.1086/160983

    1983 doi

  10. [18]

    C., Denney , K

    Bentz , M. C., Denney , K. D., Cackett , E. M., et al. 2007, title NGC 5548 in a Low-Luminosity State: Implications for the Broad-Line Region , , 662, 205, 10.1086/516724

    2007 doi

  11. [19]

    A., Chisholm , J., Erb , D

    Berg , D. A., Chisholm , J., Erb , D. K., et al. 2021, title Characterizing Extreme Emission-line Galaxies. I. A Four-zone Ionization Model for Very High-ionization Emission , , 922, 170, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac141b

    2021 doi

  12. [20]

    A., Wyithe , J

    Berger , S., Marshall , M. A., Wyithe , J. S. B., et al. 2025, title Biases in stellar masses of JWST high-z quasar host galaxies caused by quasar subtraction , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2506.12130. 2506.12130

    2025 arXiv

  13. [21]

    J., Dopita , M

    Bian , F., Kewley , L. J., Dopita , M. A., & Juneau , S. 2016, title Local Analogs for High-redshift Galaxies: Resembling the Physical Conditions of the Interstellar Medium in High-redshift Galaxies , , 822, 62, 10.3847/0004-637X/822/2/62

    2016 doi

  14. [22]

    2010, title LBT/LUCIFER Observations of the z -0.5ex 2 Lensed Galaxy J0900+2234 , , 725, 1877, 10.1088/0004-637X/725/2/1877

    Bian , F., Fan , X., Bechtold , J., et al. 2010, title LBT/LUCIFER Observations of the z -0.5ex 2 Lensed Galaxy J0900+2234 , , 725, 1877, 10.1088/0004-637X/725/2/1877

    2010 doi

  15. [23]

    1989, title Relation between the Ionizing Continuum and the Emission Lines in Fairall 9 , , 343, 135, 10.1086/167691

    Binette , L., Prieto , A., Szuszkiewicz , E., & Zheng , W. 1989, title Relation between the Ionizing Continuum and the Emission Lines in Fairall 9 , , 343, 135, 10.1086/167691

    1989 doi

  16. [24]

    D., & McKee , C

    Blandford , R. D., & McKee , C. F. 1982, title Reverberation mapping of the emission line regions of Seyfert galaxies and quasars. , , 255, 419, 10.1086/159843

    1982 doi

  17. [26]

    M., Gonz \'a lez-P \'e rez , J

    Cair \'o s , L. M., Gonz \'a lez-P \'e rez , J. N., Weilbacher , P. M., & Manso Sainz , R. 2022, title Warm ionized gas in the blue compact galaxy Haro 14 viewed by MUSE. The diverse ionization mechanisms acting in low-mass starbursts , , 664, A144, 10.1051/0004-6361/202243028

    2022 doi

  18. [27]

    2023, title Near-infrared emission line diagnostics for AGN from the local Universe to redshift 3 , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2306.08605, 10.48550/arXiv.2306.08605

    Calabr \`o , A., Pentericci , L., Feltre , A., et al. 2023, title Near-infrared emission line diagnostics for AGN from the local Universe to redshift 3 , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2306.08605, 10.48550/arXiv.2306.08605

    2023 doi arXiv

  19. [28]

    A., et al

    Calabr \`o , A., Castellano , M., Zavala , J. A., et al. 2024, title Evidence of Extreme Ionization Conditions and Low Metallicity in GHZ2/GLASS-Z12 from a Combined Analysis of NIRSpec and MIRI Observations , , 975, 245, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad7602

    2024 doi

  20. [29]

    J., Saxena , A., Bunker , A

    Cameron , A. J., Saxena , A., Bunker , A. J., et al. 2023, title JADES: Probing interstellar medium conditions at z 5.5-9.5 with ultra-deep JWST/NIRSpec spectroscopy , , 677, A115, 10.1051/0004-6361/202346107

    2023 doi

  21. [30]

    M., Satyapal , S., Abel , N

    Cann , J. M., Satyapal , S., Abel , N. P., et al. 2018, title The Hunt for Intermediate-mass Black Holes in the JWST Era , , 861, 142, 10.3847/1538-4357/aac64a

    2018 doi

  22. [31]

    2018, title Metal-enriched galactic outflows shape the mass-metallicity relationship , , 481, 1690, 10.1093/mnras/sty2380

    Chisholm , J., Tremonti , C., & Leitherer , C. 2018, title Metal-enriched galactic outflows shape the mass-metallicity relationship , , 481, 1690, 10.1093/mnras/sty2380

    2018 doi

  23. [32]

    A., Endsley , R., et al

    Chisholm , J., Berg , D. A., Endsley , R., et al. 2024, title [Ne v] emission from a faint epoch of reionization-era galaxy: evidence for a narrow-line intermediate-mass black hole , , 534, 2633, 10.1093/mnras/stae2199

    2024 doi

  24. [33]

    2023, title Metal enrichment and evolution in four z > 6.5 quasar sightlines observed with JWST/NIRSpec , , 680, A82, 10.1051/0004-6361/202347943

    Christensen , L., Jakobsen , P., Willott , C., et al. 2023, title Metal enrichment and evolution in four z > 6.5 quasar sightlines observed with JWST/NIRSpec , , 680, A82, 10.1051/0004-6361/202347943

    2023 doi

  25. [34]

    S., et al

    Cid Fernandes , R., Stasi \'n ska , G., Schlickmann , M. S., et al. 2010, title Alternative diagnostic diagrams and the `forgotten' population of weak line galaxies in the SDSS , , 403, 1036, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.16185.x

    2010

  26. [35]

    E., et al

    Clavel , J., Boksenberg , A., Bromage , G. E., et al. 1990, title The ultra-compact broad emision line region in NGC 4151. , , 246, 668

    1990

  27. [36]

    J., Olivier , G

    Cleri , N. J., Olivier , G. M., Hutchison , T. A., et al. 2023 a , title Using [Ne V]/[Ne III] to Understand the Nature of Extreme-ionization Galaxies , , 953, 10, 10.3847/1538-4357/acde55

    2023 doi

  28. [37]

    J., Yang , G., Papovich , C., et al

    Cleri , N. J., Yang , G., Papovich , C., et al. 2023 b , title CLEAR: High-ionization [Ne V] 3426 Emission-line Galaxies at 1.4 < z < 2.3 , , 948, 112, 10.3847/1538-4357/acc1e6

    2023 doi

  29. [38]

    H., Durodola , E., Casey , Q

    Cohn , J. H., Durodola , E., Casey , Q. O., Lambrides , E., & Hickox , R. C. 2025, title Evidence for evolutionary pathway-dependent black hole scaling relations , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2504.00172, 10.48550/arXiv.2504.00172

    2025 doi arXiv

  30. [39]

    L., Aird , J., Reddy , N., et al

    Coil , A. L., Aird , J., Reddy , N., et al. 2015, title The MOSDEF Survey: Optical Active Galactic Nucleus Diagnostics at z -0.5ex 2.3 , , 801, 35, 10.1088/0004-637X/801/1/35

    2015 doi

  31. [40]

    2023, title The chemical enrichment in the early Universe as probed by JWST via direct metallicity measurements at z 8 , , 518, 425, 10.1093/mnras/stac2737

    Curti , M., D'Eugenio , F., Carniani , S., et al. 2023, title The chemical enrichment in the early Universe as probed by JWST via direct metallicity measurements at z 8 , , 518, 425, 10.1093/mnras/stac2737

    2023 doi

  32. [41]

    L., Kewley , L

    Davies , R. L., Kewley , L. J., Ho , I. T., & Dopita , M. A. 2014 a , title Starburst-AGN mixing - II. Optically selected active galaxies , , 444, 3961, 10.1093/mnras/stu1740

    2014 doi

  33. [42]

    L., Rich , J

    Davies , R. L., Rich , J. A., Kewley , L. J., & Dopita , M. A. 2014 b , title Starburst-AGN mixing - I. NGC 7130 , , 439, 3835, 10.1093/mnras/stu234

    2014 doi

  34. [43]

    o rster Schreiber , N. M., \

    Davies , R. L., F \"o rster Schreiber , N. M., \"U bler , H., et al. 2019, title Kiloparsec Scale Properties of Star Formation Driven Outflows at z 2.3 in the SINS/zC-SINF AO Survey , , 873, 122, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab06f1

    2019 doi

  35. [44]

    L., Belli , S., Park , M., et al

    Davies , R. L., Belli , S., Park , M., et al. 2024, title JWST reveals widespread AGN-driven neutral gas outflows in massive z 2 galaxies , , 528, 4976, 10.1093/mnras/stae327

    2024 doi

  36. [45]

    2000, title A statistical study of emission lines from high redshift radio galaxies , , 362, 519, 10.48550/arXiv.astro-ph/0008264

    De Breuck , C., R \"o ttgering , H., Miley , G., van Breugel , W., & Best , P. 2000, title A statistical study of emission lines from high redshift radio galaxies , , 362, 519, 10.48550/arXiv.astro-ph/0008264

    2000 doi arXiv

  37. [47]

    L., Koekemoer , A

    Donley , J. L., Koekemoer , A. M., Brusa , M., et al. 2012, title Identifying Luminous Active Galactic Nuclei in Deep Surveys: Revised IRAC Selection Criteria , , 748, 142, 10.1088/0004-637X/748/2/142

    2012 doi

  38. [48]

    A., & Sutherland , R

    Dopita , M. A., & Sutherland , R. S. 1995, title Spectral Signatures of Fast Shocks. II. Optical Diagnostic Diagrams , , 455, 468, 10.1086/176596

    1995 doi

  39. [49]

    T., & McKee , C

    Draine , B. T., & McKee , C. F. 1993, title Theory of interstellar shocks. , , 31, 373, 10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002105

    1993

  40. [50]

    L., Teimoorinia , H., Rosario , D

    Ellison , S. L., Teimoorinia , H., Rosario , D. J., & Mendel , J. T. 2016, title The star formation rates of active galactic nuclei host galaxies , , 458, L34, 10.1093/mnrasl/slw012

    2016 doi

  41. [51]

    1999, title The Excitation Mechanism of Emission-Line Regions in Seyfert Galaxies , , 521, 531, 10.1086/307570

    Evans , I., Koratkar , A., Allen , M., Dopita , M., & Tsvetanov , Z. 1999, title The Excitation Mechanism of Emission-Line Regions in Seyfert Galaxies , , 521, 531, 10.1086/307570

    1999 doi

  42. [52]

    A., Becker , R

    Fan , X., Strauss , M. A., Becker , R. H., et al. 2006, title Constraining the Evolution of the Ionizing Background and the Epoch of Reionization with z -0.5ex 6 Quasars. II. A Sample of 19 Quasars , , 132, 117, 10.1086/504836

    2006 doi

  43. [53]

    2023, title Optical and mid-infrared line emission in nearby Seyfert galaxies , , 675, A74, 10.1051/0004-6361/202245516

    Feltre , A., Gruppioni , C., Marchetti , L., et al. 2023, title Optical and mid-infrared line emission in nearby Seyfert galaxies , , 675, A74, 10.1051/0004-6361/202245516

    2023 doi

  44. [54]

    J., & Netzer , H

    Ferland , G. J., & Netzer , H. 1983, title Are there any shock-heated galaxies ? , , 264, 105, 10.1086/160577

    1983 doi

  45. [55]

    J., Chatzikos , M., Guzm \'a n , F., et al

    Ferland , G. J., Chatzikos , M., Guzm \'a n , F., et al. 2017, title The 2017 Release Cloudy , , 53, 385. 1705.10877

    2017 arXiv

  46. [56]

    2000, title A Fundamental Relation between Supermassive Black Holes and Their Host Galaxies , , 539, L9, 10.1086/312838

    Ferrarese , L., & Merritt , D. 2000, title A Fundamental Relation between Supermassive Black Holes and Their Host Galaxies , , 539, L9, 10.1086/312838

    2000 doi

  47. [57]

    R., Arellano-C \'o rdova , K

    Flury , S. R., Arellano-C \'o rdova , K. Z., Moran , E. C., & Einsig , A. 2024, title New Ionization Models and the Shocking Nitrogen Excess at z > 5 , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2412.06763, 10.48550/arXiv.2412.06763

    2024 doi

  48. [58]

    Fujimoto , S., Arrabal Haro , P., Dickinson , M., et al. 2023, title CEERS Spectroscopic Confirmation of NIRCam-selected z 8 Galaxy Candidates with JWST/NIRSpec: Initial Characterization of Their Properties , , 949, L25, 10.3847/2041-8213/acd2d9

    2023 doi

  49. [59]

    R., Johnson , B

    Garofali , K., Basu-Zych , A. R., Johnson , B. D., et al. 2024, title Modeling the High-energy Ionizing Output from Simple Stellar and X-Ray Binary Populations , , 960, 13, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad0a6a

    2024 doi

  50. [60]

    Gburek , T., Siana , B., Alavi , A., et al. 2019, title The Detection of [O III] 4363 in a Lensed, Dwarf Galaxy at z = 2.59: Testing Metallicity Indicators and Scaling Relations at High Redshift and Low Mass , , 887, 168, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab5713

    2019 doi

  51. [61]

    2000, title A Relationship between Nuclear Black Hole Mass and Galaxy Velocity Dispersion , , 539, L13, 10.1086/312840

    Gebhardt , K., Bender , R., Bower , G., et al. 2000, title A Relationship between Nuclear Black Hole Mass and Galaxy Velocity Dispersion , , 539, L13, 10.1086/312840

    2000 doi

  52. [62]

    2004, title Is the soft excess in active galactic nuclei real? , , 349, L7, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07687.x

    Gierli \'n ski , M., & Done , C. 2004, title Is the soft excess in active galactic nuclei real? , , 349, L7, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07687.x

    2004

  53. [63]

    L., Zitrin , A., et al

    Golubchik , M., Steinhardt , C. L., Zitrin , A., et al. 2024, title Reverberation Mapping of High-mass and High-redshift Quasars Using Gravitational Time Delays , , 976, 108, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad8441

    2024 doi

  54. [64]

    E., & Ho , L

    Greene , J. E., & Ho , L. C. 2005, title Estimating Black Hole Masses in Active Galaxies Using the H Emission Line , , 630, 122, 10.1086/431897

    2005 doi

  55. [65]

    J., & Scott , P

    Grevesse , N., Asplund , M., Sauval , A. J., & Scott , P. 2010, title The chemical composition of the Sun , , 328, 179, 10.1007/s10509-010-0288-z

    2010 doi

  56. [66]

    M., van Hoof , P

    Gunasekera , C. M., van Hoof , P. A. M., Chatzikos , M., & Ferland , G. J. 2023, title The 23.01 Release of Cloudy , Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society, 7, 246, 10.3847/2515-5172/ad0e75

    2023 doi

  57. [67]

    R., Kirkpatrick , A., Fern \'a ndez , V., et al

    Gupta , A. R., Kirkpatrick , A., Fern \'a ndez , V., et al. 2024, title Emission-line Ratios and Ionization Conditions of CEERS Star-forming Galaxies with JWST/NIRSpec , Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society, 8, 266, 10.3847/2515-5172/ad888e

    2024 doi

  58. [68]

    N., Shapley , A

    Hainline , K. N., Shapley , A. E., Kornei , K. A., et al. 2009, title Rest-Frame Optical Spectra of Three Strongly Lensed Galaxies at z -0.5ex 2 , , 701, 52, 10.1088/0004-637X/701/1/52

    2009 doi

  59. [69]

    Harikane , Y., Zhang , Y., Nakajima , K., et al. 2023, title A JWST/NIRSpec First Census of Broad-line AGNs at z = 4-7: Detection of 10 Faint AGNs with M _ BH 10 ^ 6 - 10 ^ 8 M _ and Their Host Galaxy Properties , , 959, 39, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad029e

    2023 doi

  60. [70]

    R., Millman, K

    Harris, C. R., Millman, K. J., van der Walt, S. J., et al. 2020, title Array programming with NumPy , Nature, 585, 357, 10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2

    2020 doi

  61. [71]

    Heckman , T. M. 1980, title An Optical and Radio Survey of the Nuclei of Bright Galaxies - Activity in the Normal Galactic Nuclei , , 87, 152

    1980

  62. [72]

    M., & Best , P

    Heckman , T. M., & Best , P. N. 2014, title The Coevolution of Galaxies and Supermassive Black Holes: Insights from Surveys of the Contemporary Universe , , 52, 589, 10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-035722

    2014 doi

  63. [73]

    E., Brammer , G

    Heintz , K. E., Brammer , G. B., Gim \'e nez-Arteaga , C., et al. 2023, title Dilution of chemical enrichment in galaxies 600 Myr after the Big Bang , Nature Astronomy, 7, 1517, 10.1038/s41550-023-02078-7

    2023 doi

  64. [74]

    Henry , R. B. C., Edmunds , M. G., & K \"o ppen , J. 2000, title On the Cosmic Origins of Carbon and Nitrogen , , 541, 660, 10.1086/309471

    2000 doi

  65. [75]

    2019, title Synthetic nebular emission from massive galaxies - II

    Hirschmann , M., Charlot , S., Feltre , A., et al. 2019, title Synthetic nebular emission from massive galaxies - II. Ultraviolet-line diagnostics of dominant ionizing sources , , 487, 333, 10.1093/mnras/stz1256

    2019 doi

  66. [76]

    2023, title Emission-line properties of IllustrisTNG galaxies: from local diagnostic diagrams to high-redshift predictions for JWST , , 526, 3610, 10.1093/mnras/stad2955

    Hirschmann , M., Charlot , S., Feltre , A., et al. 2023, title Emission-line properties of IllustrisTNG galaxies: from local diagnostic diagrams to high-redshift predictions for JWST , , 526, 3610, 10.1093/mnras/stad2955

    2023 doi

  67. [77]

    Ho , L. C. 2008, title Nuclear activity in nearby galaxies. , , 46, 475, 10.1146/annurev.astro.45.051806.110546

    2008 arXiv

  68. [78]

    2010, title SDSS J094533.99+100950.1 - the remarkable weak emission line quasar , , 404, 2028, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16418.x

    Hryniewicz , K., Czerny , B., Niko ajuk , M., & Kuraszkiewicz , J. 2010, title SDSS J094533.99+100950.1 - the remarkable weak emission line quasar , , 404, 2028, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16418.x

    2010

  69. [79]

    Y.-Y., Abdurro'uf , Coe , D., et al

    Hsiao , T. Y.-Y., Abdurro'uf , Coe , D., et al. 2024 a , title JWST NIRSpec Spectroscopy of the Triply Lensed z = 10.17 Galaxy MACS0647 JD , , 973, 8, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad5da8

    2024 doi

  70. [80]

    Y.-Y., \'A lvarez-M \'a rquez , J., Coe , D., et al

    Hsiao , T. Y.-Y., \'A lvarez-M \'a rquez , J., Coe , D., et al. 2024 b , title JWST MIRI Detections of H and [O III] and a Direct Metallicity Measurement of the z = 10.17 Lensed Galaxy MACS0647‑JD , , 973, 81, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad6562

    2024 doi

  71. [81]

    Hu , W., Papovich , C., Dickinson , M., et al. 2024, title Characterizing the Average Interstellar Medium Conditions of Galaxies at z 5.6-9 with UV and Optical Nebular Lines , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2401.12402, 10.48550/arXiv.2401.12402

    2024 doi arXiv

  72. [82]

    Hunter , J. D. 2007, title Matplotlib: A 2D Graphics Environment , Computing in Science and Engineering, 9, 90, 10.1109/MCSE.2007.55

    2007 doi

  73. [83]

    E., de Graaff , A., Miller , T

    Hviding , R. E., de Graaff , A., Miller , T. B., et al. 2025, title RUBIES: A Spectroscopic Census of Little Red Dots; All V-Shaped Point Sources Have Broad Lines , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2506.05459, 10.48550/arXiv.2506.05459

    2025 doi

  74. [84]

    Isobe , Y., Ouchi , M., Nakajima , K., et al. 2023, title Redshift Evolution of Electron Density in the Interstellar Medium at z 0-9 Uncovered with JWST/NIRSpec Spectra and Line-spread Function Determinations , , 956, 139, 10.3847/1538-4357/acf376

    2023 doi

  75. [85]

    I., Thuan , T

    Izotov , Y. I., Thuan , T. X., & Guseva , N. G. 2021, title Large binocular telescope observations of new six compact star-forming galaxies with [Ne V] 3426 A emission , , 508, 2556, 10.1093/mnras/stab2798

    2021 doi

  76. [87]

    2022, title The Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) on the James Webb Space Telescope

    Jakobsen , P., Ferruit , P., Alves de Oliveira , C., et al. 2022, title The Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) on the James Webb Space Telescope. I. Overview of the instrument and its capabilities , , 661, A80, 10.1051/0004-6361/202142663

    2022 doi

  77. [88]

    E., & Oey , M

    Jaskot , A. E., & Oey , M. S. 2013, title The Origin and Optical Depth of Ionizing Radiation in the ``Green Pea'' Galaxies , , 766, 91, 10.1088/0004-637X/766/2/91

    2013 doi

  78. [89]

    M., & Salim , S

    Juneau , S., Dickinson , M., Alexander , D. M., & Salim , S. 2011, title A New Diagnostic of Active Galactic Nuclei: Revealing Highly Absorbed Systems at Redshift >0.3 , , 736, 104, 10.1088/0004-637X/736/2/104

    2011 doi

  79. [90]

    Juneau , S., Bournaud , F., Charlot , S., et al. 2014, title Active Galactic Nuclei Emission Line Diagnostics and the Mass-Metallicity Relation up to Redshift z -0.5ex 2: The Impact of Selection Effects and Evolution , , 788, 88, 10.1088/0004-637X/788/1/88

    2014 doi

  80. [91]

    J., & Gupta , A

    Kaasinen , M., Bian , F., Groves , B., Kewley , L. J., & Gupta , A. 2017, title The COSMOS-[O II] survey: evolution of electron density with star formation rate , , 465, 3220, 10.1093/mnras/stw2827

    2017 doi

  81. [92]

    D., Sanders , D., et al

    Kashino , D., Silverman , J. D., Sanders , D., et al. 2017, title The FMOS-COSMOS Survey of Star-forming Galaxies at z 1.6. IV. Excitation State and Chemical Enrichment of the Interstellar Medium , , 835, 88, 10.3847/1538-4357/835/1/88

    2017 doi

  82. [93]

    S., Netzer , H., et al

    Kaspi , S., Smith , P. S., Netzer , H., et al. 2000, title Reverberation Measurements for 17 Quasars and the Size-Mass-Luminosity Relations in Active Galactic Nuclei , , 533, 631, 10.1086/308704

    2000 doi

  83. [94]

    Katz , H., Rosdahl , J., Kimm , T., et al. 2023, title The SPHINX Public Data Release: Forward Modelling High-Redshift JWST Observations with Cosmological Radiation Hydrodynamics Simulations , The Open Journal of Astrophysics, 6, 44, 10.21105/astro.2309.03269

    2023 arXiv

  84. [95]

    M., Tremonti , C., et al

    Kauffmann , G., Heckman , T. M., Tremonti , C., et al. 2003, title The host galaxies of active galactic nuclei , , 346, 1055, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2003.07154.x

    2003

  85. [96]

    Keel , W. C. 1983, title Spectroscopic evidence for activity in the nuclei of normal spiral galaxies. , , 269, 466, 10.1086/161057

    1983 doi

  86. [97]

    J., Dopita , M

    Kewley , L. J., Dopita , M. A., Leitherer , C., et al. 2013, title Theoretical Evolution of Optical Strong Lines across Cosmic Time , , 774, 100, 10.1088/0004-637X/774/2/100

    2013 doi

  87. [99]

    J., Heisler , C

    Kewley , L. J., Heisler , C. A., Dopita , M. A., & Lumsden , S. 2001, title Optical Classification of Southern Warm Infrared Galaxies , , 132, 37, 10.1086/318944

    2001 doi

  88. [100]

    J., Nicholls , D

    Kewley , L. J., Nicholls , D. C., & Sutherland , R. S. 2019, title Understanding Galaxy Evolution Through Emission Lines , , 57, 511, 10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051832

    2019 doi

  89. [101]

    2024, title Deciphering the JWST spectrum of a 'little red dot' at z 4.53: An obscured AGN and its star-forming host , , 691, A52, 10.1051/0004-6361/202348857

    Killi , M., Watson , D., Brammer , G., et al. 2024, title Deciphering the JWST spectrum of a 'little red dot' at z 4.53: An obscured AGN and its star-forming host , , 691, A52, 10.1051/0004-6361/202348857

    2024 doi

  90. [102]

    2017, title The AGN-Star Formation Connection: Future Prospects with JWST , , 849, 111, 10.3847/1538-4357/aa911d

    Kirkpatrick , A., Alberts , S., Pope , A., et al. 2017, title The AGN-Star Formation Connection: Future Prospects with JWST , , 849, 111, 10.3847/1538-4357/aa911d

    2017 doi

  91. [103]

    2023, title CEERS Key Paper

    Kirkpatrick , A., Yang , G., Le Bail , A., et al. 2023, title CEERS Key Paper. VII. JWST/MIRI Reveals a Faint Population of Galaxies at Cosmic Noon Unseen by Spitzer , , 959, L7, 10.3847/2041-8213/ad0b14

    2023 doi

  92. [104]

    D., Onoue , M., Inayoshi , K., et al

    Kocevski , D. D., Onoue , M., Inayoshi , K., et al. 2023, title Hidden Little Monsters: Spectroscopic Identification of Low-mass, Broad-line AGNs at z > 5 with CEERS , , 954, L4, 10.3847/2041-8213/ace5a0

    2023 doi

  93. [105]

    D., Finkelstein , S

    Kocevski , D. D., Finkelstein , S. L., Barro , G., et al. 2025, title The Rise of Faint, Red Active Galactic Nuclei at z > 4: A Sample of Little Red Dots in the JWST Extragalactic Legacy Fields , , 986, 126, 10.3847/1538-4357/adbc7d

    2025 doi

  94. [106]

    2023, title UNCOVER: A NIRSpec Identification of a Broad-line AGN at z = 8.50 , , 957, L7, 10.3847/2041-8213/ad037a

    Kokorev , V., Fujimoto , S., Labbe , I., et al. 2023, title UNCOVER: A NIRSpec Identification of a Broad-line AGN at z = 8.50 , , 957, L7, 10.3847/2041-8213/ad037a

    2023 doi

  95. [107]

    1997, title Do the Broad Emission Line Clouds See the Same Continuum That We See? , , 487, 555, 10.1086/304659

    Korista , K., Ferland , G., & Baldwin , J. 1997, title Do the Broad Emission Line Clouds See the Same Continuum That We See? , , 487, 555, 10.1086/304659

    1997 doi

  96. [108]

    Kormendy , J., & Ho , L. C. 2013, title Coevolution (Or Not) of Supermassive Black Holes and Host Galaxies , , 51, 511, 10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101811

    2013 doi

  97. [109]

    2024, title JADES: Physical properties of Ly and non-Ly emitters at z -0.5ex 4.8-9.6 , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2406.11997, 10.48550/arXiv.2406.11997

    Kumari , N., Smit , R., Witstok , J., et al. 2024, title JADES: Physical properties of Ly and non-Ly emitters at z -0.5ex 4.8-9.6 , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2406.11997, 10.48550/arXiv.2406.11997

    2024 doi arXiv

  98. [110]

    J., Sajina , A., et al

    Lacy , M., Storrie-Lombardi , L. J., Sajina , A., et al. 2004, title Obscured and Unobscured Active Galactic Nuclei in the Spitzer Space Telescope First Look Survey , , 154, 166, 10.1086/422816

    2004 doi

  99. [111]

    Laor , A., & Davis , S. W. 2011, title Cold accretion discs and lineless quasars , , 417, 681, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19310.x

    2011

  100. [112]

    L., Finkelstein , S

    Larson , R. L., Finkelstein , S. L., Kocevski , D. D., et al. 2023, title A CEERS Discovery of an Accreting Supermassive Black Hole 570 Myr after the Big Bang: Identifying a Progenitor of Massive z > 6 Quasars , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2303.08918, 10.48550/arXiv.2303.08918

    2023 doi arXiv

  101. [113]

    M., & Richardson , M

    Levesque , E. M., & Richardson , M. L. A. 2014, title [Ne III]/[O II] as an Ionization Parameter Diagnostic in Star-Forming Galaxies , , 780, 100, 10.1088/0004-637X/780/1/100

    2014 doi

  102. [114]

    N., Xue , Y

    Luo , B., Brandt , W. N., Xue , Y. Q., et al. 2017, title The Chandra Deep Field-South Survey: 7 Ms Source Catalogs , The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 228, 2, 10.3847/1538-4365/228/1/2

    2017 doi

  103. [115]

    2014, title Cosmic Star-Formation History , , 52, 415, 10.1146/annurev-astro-081811-125615

    Madau , P., & Dickinson , M. 2014, title Cosmic Star-Formation History , , 52, 415, 10.1146/annurev-astro-081811-125615

    2014 doi

  104. [116]

    2022, title Observational constraints on the origin of the elements

    Magg , E., Bergemann , M., Serenelli , A., et al. 2022, title Observational constraints on the origin of the elements. IV. Standard composition of the Sun , , 661, A140, 10.1051/0004-6361/202142971

    2022 doi

  105. [117]

    2016, title The PEP survey: evidence for intense star-forming activity in the majority of radio-selected AGN at z 1 , , 456, 431, 10.1093/mnras/stv2645

    Magliocchetti , M., Lutz , D., Santini , P., et al. 2016, title The PEP survey: evidence for intense star-forming activity in the majority of radio-selected AGN at z 1 , , 456, 431, 10.1093/mnras/stv2645

    2016 doi

  106. [118]

    2019, title De re metallica: the cosmic chemical evolution of galaxies , , 27, 3, 10.1007/s00159-018-0112-2

    Maiolino , R., & Mannucci , F. 2019, title De re metallica: the cosmic chemical evolution of galaxies , , 27, 3, 10.1007/s00159-018-0112-2

    2019 doi

  107. [119]

    2024, title JADES: The diverse population of infant black holes at 4 < z < 11: Merging, tiny, poor, but mighty , , 691, A145, 10.1051/0004-6361/202347640

    Maiolino , R., Scholtz , J., Curtis-Lake , E., et al. 2024, title JADES: The diverse population of infant black holes at 4 < z < 11: Merging, tiny, poor, but mighty , , 691, A145, 10.1051/0004-6361/202347640

    2024 doi

  108. [120]

    G., & Ferland , G

    Mathews , W. G., & Ferland , G. J. 1987, title What Heats the Hot Phase in Active Nuclei? , , 323, 456, 10.1086/165843

    1987 doi

  109. [121]

    P., Brammer , G., et al

    Matthee , J., Naidu , R. P., Brammer , G., et al. 2024, title Little Red Dots: An Abundant Population of Faint Active Galactic Nuclei at z 5 Revealed by the EIGER and FRESCO JWST Surveys , , 963, 129, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad2345

    2024 doi

  110. [122]

    2024, title New AGN diagnostic diagrams based on the [OIII] 4363 auroral line , , 691, A345, 10.1051/0004-6361/202450407

    Mazzolari , G., \"U bler , H., Maiolino , R., et al. 2024, title New AGN diagnostic diagrams based on the [OIII] 4363 auroral line , , 691, A345, 10.1051/0004-6361/202450407

    2024 doi

  111. [123]

    2023, title Ray-tracing simulations of the soft X-ray scattered emission in obscured active galactic nuclei , , 10.1093/mnras/stad2974

    McKaig , J., Ricci , C., Paltani , S., et al. 2023, title Ray-tracing simulations of the soft X-ray scattered emission in obscured active galactic nuclei , , 10.1093/mnras/stad2974

    2023 doi

  112. [124]

    F., & Hollenbach , D

    McKee , C. F., & Hollenbach , D. J. 1980, title Interstellar shock waves , , 18, 219, 10.1146/annurev.aa.18.090180.001251

    1980

  113. [125]

    S., Steidel , C

    McLean , I. S., Steidel , C. C., Epps , H. W., et al. 2012, in Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, Vol. 8446, Ground-based and Airborne Instrumentation for Astronomy IV, ed. I. S. McLean , S. K. Ramsay , & H. Takami , 84460J, 10.1117/12.924794

    2012 doi

  114. [126]

    M., U , V., Rich , J

    Medling , A. M., U , V., Rich , J. A., et al. 2015, title Shocked gas in IRAS F17207-0014: ISM collisions and outflows , , 448, 2301, 10.1093/mnras/stv081

    2015 doi

  115. [127]

    S., Kriss , G

    Mehdipour , M., Kaastra , J. S., Kriss , G. A., et al. 2015, title Anatomy of the AGN in NGC 5548. I. A global model for the broadband spectral energy distribution , , 575, A22, 10.1051/0004-6361/201425373

    2015 doi

  116. [128]

    L., Berg , D

    Mingozzi , M., James , B. L., Berg , D. A., et al. 2024, title CLASSY. VIII. Exploring the Source of Ionization with UV Interstellar Medium Diagnostics in Local High-z Analogs , , 962, 95, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad1033

    2024 doi

  117. [129]

    Mitchell , J. A. J., Done , C., Ward , M. J., et al. 2023, title The SOUX AGN sample: Optical/UV/X-ray SEDs and the nature of the disc , , 10.1093/mnras/stad1830

    2023 doi

  118. [130]

    2018, title The VIMOS Ultra Deep Survey: Nature, ISM properties, and ionizing spectra of CIII] 1909 emitters at z = 2-4 , , 612, A94, 10.1051/0004-6361/201731935

    Nakajima , K., Schaerer , D., Le F \`e vre , O., et al. 2018, title The VIMOS Ultra Deep Survey: Nature, ISM properties, and ionizing spectra of CIII] 1909 emitters at z = 2-4 , , 612, A94, 10.1051/0004-6361/201731935

    2018 doi

  119. [131]

    2025, title An Ultra-Faint, Chemically Primitive Galaxy Forming at the Epoch of Reionization , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2506.11846, 10.48550/arXiv.2506.11846

    Nakajima , K., Ouchi , M., Harikane , Y., et al. 2025, title An Ultra-Faint, Chemically Primitive Galaxy Forming at the Epoch of Reionization , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2506.11846, 10.48550/arXiv.2506.11846

    2025 doi

  120. [132]

    2007, title Spitzer Quasar and ULIRG Evolution Study (QUEST)

    Netzer , H., Lutz , D., Schweitzer , M., et al. 2007, title Spitzer Quasar and ULIRG Evolution Study (QUEST). II. The Spectral Energy Distributions of Palomar-Green Quasars , , 666, 806, 10.1086/520716

    2007 doi

  121. [133]

    B., Gu , M., Belli , S., et al

    Newman , A. B., Gu , M., Belli , S., et al. 2025, title A stellar dynamical mass measure of an inactive black hole in the distant universe , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2503.17478, 10.48550/arXiv.2503.17478

    2025 doi arXiv

  122. [134]

    E., & Mathews , W

    Osterbrock , D. E., & Mathews , W. G. 1986, title Emission-line regions of active galaxies and QSOs. , , 24, 171, 10.1146/annurev.aa.24.090186.001131

    1986

  123. [135]

    E., & Pogge , R

    Osterbrock , D. E., & Pogge , R. W. 1985, title The spectra of narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies. , , 297, 166, 10.1086/163513

    1985 doi

  124. [136]

    2024, title The Redshift Evolution of the M_ -M_ Relation for JWST's Supermassive Black Holes at z > 4 , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2401.04159, 10.48550/arXiv.2401.04159

    Pacucci , F., & Loeb , A. 2024, title The Redshift Evolution of the M_ -M_ Relation for JWST's Supermassive Black Holes at z > 4 , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2401.04159, 10.48550/arXiv.2401.04159

    2024 doi arXiv

  125. [137]

    M., Assef , R

    Padovani , P., Alexander , D. M., Assef , R. J., et al. 2017, title Active galactic nuclei: what's in a name? , , 25, 2, 10.1007/s00159-017-0102-9

    2017 doi

  126. [138]

    C., Estrada-Carpenter , V., et al

    Papovich , C., Simons , R. C., Estrada-Carpenter , V., et al. 2022, title CLEAR: The Ionization and Chemical-enrichment Properties of Galaxies at 1.1 < z < 2.3 , , 937, 22, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac8058

    2022 doi

  127. [139]

    Peterson , B. M. 1993, title Reverberation Mapping of Active Galactic Nuclei , , 105, 247, 10.1086/133140

    1993 doi

  128. [140]

    M., Ferrarese , L., Gilbert , K

    Peterson , B. M., Ferrarese , L., Gilbert , K. M., et al. 2004, title Central Masses and Broad-Line Region Sizes of Active Galactic Nuclei. II. A Homogeneous Analysis of a Large Reverberation-Mapping Database , , 613, 682, 10.1086/423269

    2004 doi

  129. [141]

    O., Armus , L., Howell , J., et al

    Petric , A. O., Armus , L., Howell , J., et al. 2011, title Mid-Infrared Spectral Diagnostics of Luminous Infrared Galaxies , , 730, 28, 10.1088/0004-637X/730/1/28

    2011 doi

  130. [142]

    2022, title pandas-dev/pandas: Pandas 1.4.2 , , v1.4.2, Zenodo Zenodo, 10.5281/zenodo.3509134

    Reback , J., jbrockmendel , McKinney , W., et al. 2022, title pandas-dev/pandas: Pandas 1.4.2 , , v1.4.2, Zenodo Zenodo, 10.5281/zenodo.3509134

    2022 doi

  131. [143]

    T., Lacy , M., Storrie-Lombardi , L

    Richards , G. T., Lacy , M., Storrie-Lombardi , L. J., et al. 2006, title Spectral Energy Distributions and Multiwavelength Selection of Type 1 Quasars , , 166, 470, 10.1086/506525

    2006 doi

  132. [144]

    R., Bayliss , M

    Rigby , J. R., Bayliss , M. B., Chisholm , J., et al. 2018, title The Magellan Evolution of Galaxies Spectroscopic and Ultraviolet Reference Atlas (MegaSaura). II. Stacked Spectra , , 853, 87, 10.3847/1538-4357/aaa2fc

    2018 doi

  133. [145]

    G., Rieke , G

    Rinaldi , P., P \'e rez-Gonz \'a lez , P. G., Rieke , G. H., et al. 2025, title Deciphering the Nature of Virgil: An Obscured AGN Lurking Within an Apparently Normal Lyman- Emitter During Cosmic Reionization , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2504.01852, 10.48550/arXiv.2504.01852

    2025 doi arXiv

  134. [146]

    J., Trakhtenbrot , B., Lutz , D., et al

    Rosario , D. J., Trakhtenbrot , B., Lutz , D., et al. 2013, title The mean star-forming properties of QSO host galaxies , , 560, A72, 10.1051/0004-6361/201322196

    2013 doi

  135. [147]

    J., McIntosh , D

    Rosario , D. J., McIntosh , D. H., van der Wel , A., et al. 2015, title The host galaxies of X-ray selected active galactic nuclei to z = 2.5: Structure, star formation, and their relationships from CANDELS and Herschel/PACS , , 573, A85, 10.1051/0004-6361/201423782

    2015 doi

  136. [148]

    Salpeter , E. E. 1955, title The Luminosity Function and Stellar Evolution. , , 121, 161, 10.1086/145971

    1955 doi

  137. [149]

    L., Shapley , A

    Sanders , R. L., Shapley , A. E., Topping , M. W., Reddy , N. A., & Brammer , G. B. 2023, title Excitation and Ionization Properties of Star-forming Galaxies at z = 2.0-9.3 with JWST/NIRSpec , , 955, 54, 10.3847/1538-4357/acedad

    2023 doi

  138. [150]

    L., Shapley , A

    Sanders , R. L., Shapley , A. E., Topping , M. W., Reddy , N. A., & Brammer , G. B. 2024, title Direct T _ e -based Metallicities of z = 2 9 Galaxies with JWST/NIRSpec: Empirical Metallicity Calibrations Applicable from Reionization to Cosmic Noon , , 962, 24, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad15fc

    2024 doi

  139. [151]

    L., Shapley , A

    Sanders , R. L., Shapley , A. E., Kriek , M., et al. 2015, title The MOSDEF Survey: Mass, Metallicity, and Star-formation Rate at z -0.5ex 2.3 , , 799, 138, 10.1088/0004-637X/799/2/138

    2015 doi

  140. [152]

    L., Shapley , A

    Sanders , R. L., Shapley , A. E., Kriek , M., et al. 2016, title The MOSDEF Survey: Electron Density and Ionization Parameter at z -0.5ex 2.3 , , 816, 23, 10.3847/0004-637X/816/1/23

    2016 doi

  141. [153]

    L., Shapley , A

    Sanders , R. L., Shapley , A. E., Kriek , M., et al. 2018, title The MOSDEF Survey: A Stellar Mass-SFR-Metallicity Relation Exists at z 2.3 , , 858, 99, 10.3847/1538-4357/aabcbd

    2018 doi

  142. [154]

    L., Shapley , A

    Sanders , R. L., Shapley , A. E., Reddy , N. A., et al. 2020, title The MOSDEF survey: direct-method metallicities and ISM conditions at z 1.5-3.5 , , 491, 1427, 10.1093/mnras/stz3032

    2020 doi

  143. [155]

    Schaerer , D., Fragos , T., & Izotov , Y. I. 2019, title X-ray binaries as the origin of nebular He II emission in low-metallicity star-forming galaxies , , 622, L10, 10.1051/0004-6361/201935005

    2019 doi

  144. [156]

    2025, title JADES: A large population of obscured, narrow-line active galactic nuclei at high redshift , , 697, A175, 10.1051/0004-6361/202348804

    Scholtz , J., Maiolino , R., D'Eugenio , F., et al. 2025, title JADES: A large population of obscured, narrow-line active galactic nuclei at high redshift , , 697, A175, 10.1051/0004-6361/202348804

    2025 doi

  145. [157]

    1971, title Evidence for Composition Gradients across the Disks of Spiral Galaxies , , 168, 327, 10.1086/151090

    Searle , L. 1971, title Evidence for Composition Gradients across the Disks of Spiral Galaxies , , 168, 327, 10.1086/151090

    1971 doi

  146. [158]

    P., Vidal-Garc \' a , A., et al

    Senchyna , P., Stark , D. P., Vidal-Garc \' a , A., et al. 2017, title Ultraviolet spectra of extreme nearby star-forming regions - approaching a local reference sample for JWST , , 472, 2608, 10.1093/mnras/stx2059

    2017 doi

  147. [159]

    E., Reddy , N

    Shapley , A. E., Reddy , N. A., Kriek , M., et al. 2015, title The MOSDEF Survey: Excitation Properties of z 2.3 Star-forming Galaxies , , 801, 88, 10.1088/0004-637X/801/2/88

    2015 doi

  148. [160]

    E., Sanders , R

    Shapley , A. E., Sanders , R. L., Shao , P., et al. 2019, title The MOSDEF Survey: Sulfur Emission-line Ratios Provide New Insights into Evolving Interstellar Medium Conditions at High Redshift , , 881, L35, 10.3847/2041-8213/ab385a

    2019 doi

  149. [161]

    T., Mushotzky , R

    Shimizu , T. T., Mushotzky , R. F., Mel \'e ndez , M., Koss , M., & Rosario , D. J. 2015, title Decreased specific star formation rates in AGN host galaxies , , 452, 1841, 10.1093/mnras/stv1407

    2015 doi

  150. [162]

    2012, title Strongly star forming galaxies in the local Universe with nebular He II 4686 emission , , 421, 1043, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20439.x

    Shirazi , M., & Brinchmann , J. 2012, title Strongly star forming galaxies in the local Universe with nebular He II 4686 emission , , 421, 1043, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20439.x

    2012

  151. [163]

    A., Shapley , A

    Shivaei , I., Reddy , N. A., Shapley , A. E., et al. 2015, title The MOSDEF Survey: Dissecting the Star Formation Rate versus Stellar Mass Relation Using H and H Emission Lines at z 2 , , 815, 98, 10.1088/0004-637X/815/2/98

    2015 doi

  152. [164]

    A., Siana , B., et al

    Shivaei , I., Reddy , N. A., Siana , B., et al. 2018, title The MOSDEF Survey: Direct Observational Constraints on the Ionizing Photon Production Efficiency, _ ion , at z 2 , , 855, 42, 10.3847/1538-4357/aaad62

    2018 doi

  153. [165]

    M., & Osterbrock , D

    Shuder , J. M., & Osterbrock , D. E. 1981, title Empirical results from a study of active galactic nuclei. , , 250, 55, 10.1086/159347

    1981 doi

  154. [166]

    I., Ferguson , H

    Siana , B., Teplitz , H. I., Ferguson , H. C., et al. 2010, title A Deep Hubble Space Telescope Search for Escaping Lyman Continuum Flux at z -0.5ex 1.3: Evidence for an Evolving Ionizing Emissivity , , 723, 241, 10.1088/0004-637X/723/1/241

    2010 doi

  155. [167]

    C., Papovich , C., Momcheva , I., et al

    Simons , R. C., Papovich , C., Momcheva , I., et al. 2021, title CLEAR: The Gas-phase Metallicity Gradients of Star-forming Galaxies at 0.6 < z < 2.6 , , 923, 203, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac28f4

    2021 doi

  156. [168]

    P., Colgan , S

    Simpson , J. P., Colgan , S. W. J., Cotera , A. S., et al. 2007, title Spitzer IRS Observations of the Galactic Center: Shocked Gas in the Radio Arc Bubble , , 670, 1115, 10.1086/522295

    2007 doi

  157. [169]

    2025, title Beyond Traditional Diagnostics: Identifying Active Galactic Nuclei with Spectral Energy Distribution Fitting in DESI Data , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2506.09143

    Siudek , M., Mezcua , M., Circosta , C., et al. 2025, title Beyond Traditional Diagnostics: Identifying Active Galactic Nuclei with Spectral Energy Distribution Fitting in DESI Data , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2506.09143. 2506.09143

    2025 arXiv

  158. [170]

    Smith , H. E. 1975, title Spectrophotometric observations of ionized hydrogen regions in nearby spiral and irregular galaxies. , , 199, 591, 10.1086/153727

    1975 doi

  159. [171]

    R., & Eldridge , J

    Stanway , E. R., & Eldridge , J. J. 2018, title Re-evaluating old stellar populations , , 479, 75, 10.1093/mnras/sty1353

    2018 doi

  160. [172]

    Stasi \'n ska , G., Cid Fernandes , R., Mateus , A., Sodr \'e , L., & Asari , N. V. 2006, title Semi-empirical analysis of Sloan Digital Sky Survey galaxies - III. How to distinguish AGN hosts , , 371, 972, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10732.x

    2006

  161. [173]

    C., Erb , D

    Steidel , C. C., Erb , D. K., Shapley , A. E., et al. 2010, title The Structure and Kinematics of the Circumgalactic Medium from Far-ultraviolet Spectra of z -0.5ex = 2-3 Galaxies , , 717, 289, 10.1088/0004-637X/717/1/289

    2010 doi

  162. [174]

    C., Strom , A

    Steidel , C. C., Strom , A. L., Pettini , M., et al. 2016, title Reconciling the Stellar and Nebular Spectra of High-redshift Galaxies , , 826, 159, 10.3847/0004-637X/826/2/159

    2016 doi

  163. [175]

    C., Rudie , G

    Steidel , C. C., Rudie , G. C., Strom , A. L., et al. 2014, title Strong Nebular Line Ratios in the Spectra of z -0.5ex 2-3 Star Forming Galaxies: First Results from KBSS-MOSFIRE , , 795, 165, 10.1088/0004-637X/795/2/165

    2014 doi

  164. [176]

    2005, title Mid-Infrared Selection of Active Galaxies , , 631, 163, 10.1086/432523

    Stern , D., Eisenhardt , P., Gorjian , V., et al. 2005, title Mid-Infrared Selection of Active Galaxies , , 631, 163, 10.1086/432523

    2005 doi

  165. [177]

    L., Rudie , G

    Strom , A. L., Rudie , G. C., Steidel , C. C., & Trainor , R. F. 2022, title Chemical Abundance Scaling Relations for Multiple Elements in z ≃ 2-3 Star-forming Galaxies , , 925, 116, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac38a3

    2022 doi

  166. [178]

    L., Steidel , C

    Strom , A. L., Steidel , C. C., Rudie , G. C., Trainor , R. F., & Pettini , M. 2018, title Measuring the Physical Conditions in High-redshift Star-forming Galaxies: Insights from KBSS-MOSFIRE , , 868, 117, 10.3847/1538-4357/aae1a5

    2018 doi

  167. [179]

    L., Steidel , C

    Strom , A. L., Steidel , C. C., Rudie , G. C., et al. 2017, title Nebular Emission Line Ratios in z ≃ 2-3 Star-forming Galaxies with KBSS-MOSFIRE: Exploring the Impact of Ionization, Excitation, and Nitrogen-to-Oxygen Ratio , , 836, 164, 10.3847/1538-4357/836/2/164

    2017 doi

  168. [180]

    W., Marziani , P., & Dultzin-Hacyan , D

    Sulentic , J. W., Marziani , P., & Dultzin-Hacyan , D. 2000, title Phenomenology of Broad Emission Lines in Active Galactic Nuclei , , 38, 521, 10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.521

    2000 doi

  169. [181]

    H., Lyu , J., et al

    Sun , Y., Rieke , G. H., Lyu , J., et al. 2025, title Evolution of the M _ * M _ BH Relation from z 6 to the Present Epoch , , 983, 165, 10.3847/1538-4357/adc250

    2025 doi

  170. [182]

    S., & Dopita , M

    Sutherland , R. S., & Dopita , M. A. 1993, title Cooling Functions for Low-Density Astrophysical Plasmas , , 88, 253, 10.1086/191823

    1993 doi

  171. [183]

    L., Kodama , T., Onodera , M., et al

    Suzuki , T. L., Kodama , T., Onodera , M., et al. 2017, title The Interstellar Medium in [O III]-selected Star-forming Galaxies at z 3.2 , , 849, 39, 10.3847/1538-4357/aa8df3

    2017 doi

  172. [184]

    J., Finkelstein , S

    Taylor , A. J., Finkelstein , S. L., Kocevski , D. D., et al. 2024, title Broad-Line AGN at 3.5<z<6 : The Black Hole Mass Function and a Connection with Little Red Dots , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2409.06772, 10.48550/arXiv.2409.06772

    2024 doi arXiv

  173. [185]

    J., Kokorev , V., Kocevski , D

    Taylor , A. J., Kokorev , V., Kocevski , D. D., et al. 2025, title CAPERS-LRD-z9: A Gas Enshrouded Little Red Dot Hosting a Broad-line AGN at z=9.288 , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2505.04609, 10.48550/arXiv.2505.04609

    2025 doi arXiv

  174. [186]

    X., & Izotov , Y

    Thuan , T. X., & Izotov , Y. I. 2005, title High-Ionization Emission in Metal-deficient Blue Compact Dwarf Galaxies , , 161, 240, 10.1086/491657

    2005 doi

  175. [187]

    E., Weaver , J

    Treiber , H., Greene , J. E., Weaver , J. R., et al. 2025, title UNCOVERing the High-redshift AGN Population among Extreme UV Line Emitters , , 984, 93, 10.3847/1538-4357/adc38f

    2025 doi

  176. [188]

    J., & Tremonti , C

    Trouille , L., Barger , A. J., & Tremonti , C. 2011, title The OPTX Project. V. Identifying Distant Active Galactic Nuclei , , 742, 46, 10.1088/0004-637X/742/1/46

    2011 doi

  177. [189]

    R., Impey , C

    Trump , J. R., Impey , C. D., Kelly , B. C., et al. 2011, title Accretion Rate and the Physical Nature of Unobscured Active Galaxies , , 733, 60, 10.1088/0004-637X/733/1/60

    2011 doi

  178. [190]

    R., Sun , M., Zeimann , G

    Trump , J. R., Sun , M., Zeimann , G. R., et al. 2015, title The Biases of Optical Line-Ratio Selection for Active Galactic Nuclei and the Intrinsic Relationship between Black Hole Accretion and Galaxy Star Formation , , 811, 26, 10.1088/0004-637X/811/1/26

    2015 doi

  179. [191]

    R., Arrabal Haro , P., Simons , R

    Trump , J. R., Arrabal Haro , P., Simons , R. C., et al. 2023, title The Physical Conditions of Emission-line Galaxies at Cosmic Dawn from JWST/NIRSpec Spectroscopy in the SMACS 0723 Early Release Observations , , 945, 35, 10.3847/1538-4357/acba8a

    2023 doi

  180. [192]

    2023, title GA-NIFS: A massive black hole in a low-metallicity AGN at z 5.55 revealed by JWST/NIRSpec IFS , , 677, A145, 10.1051/0004-6361/202346137

    \"U bler , H., Maiolino , R., Curtis-Lake , E., et al. 2023, title GA-NIFS: A massive black hole in a low-metallicity AGN at z 5.55 revealed by JWST/NIRSpec IFS , , 677, A145, 10.1051/0004-6361/202346137

    2023 doi

  181. [193]

    M., & Padovani , P

    Urry , C. M., & Padovani , P. 1995, title Unified Schemes for Radio-Loud Active Galactic Nuclei , , 107, 803, 10.1086/133630

    1995 doi

  182. [194]

    E., Richards , G

    Vanden Berk , D. E., Richards , G. T., Bauer , A., et al. 2001, title Composite Quasar Spectra from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey , , 122, 549, 10.1086/321167

    2001 doi

  183. [195]

    L., Ishikawa , Y., et al

    Vayner , A., Zakamska , N. L., Ishikawa , Y., et al. 2023, title First Results from the JWST Early Release Science Program Q3D: Ionization Cone, Clumpy Star Formation, and Shocks in a z = 3 Extremely Red Quasar Host , , 955, 92, 10.3847/1538-4357/ace784

    2023 doi

  184. [196]

    2005, title Galactic Winds , , 43, 769, 10.1146/annurev.astro.43.072103.150610

    Veilleux , S., Cecil , G., & Bland-Hawthorn , J. 2005, title Galactic Winds , , 43, 769, 10.1146/annurev.astro.43.072103.150610

    2005 arXiv

  185. [197]

    Veilleux , S., & Osterbrock , D. E. 1987, title Spectral Classification of Emission-Line Galaxies , , 63, 295, 10.1086/191166

    1987 doi

  186. [198]

    Veilleux , S., Liu , W., Vayner , A., et al. 2023, title First Results from the JWST Early Release Science Program Q3D: The Warm Ionized Gas Outflow in z 1.6 Quasar XID 2028 and Its Impact on the Host Galaxy , , 953, 56, 10.3847/1538-4357/ace10f

    2023 doi

  187. [199]

    Walter , R., & Fink , H. H. 1993, title The ultraviolet to soft X-ray bump of Seyfert 1 type active galactic nuclei. , , 274, 105

    1993

  188. [200]

    Wang , B., Leja , J., de Graaff , A., et al. 2024, title RUBIES: Evolved Stellar Populations with Extended Formation Histories at z 7 8 in Candidate Massive Galaxies Identified with JWST/NIRSpec , , 969, L13, 10.3847/2041-8213/ad55f7

    2024 doi

  189. [201]

    L., et al

    Wang , B., de Graaff , A., Davies , R. L., et al. 2025, title RUBIES: JWST/NIRSpec Confirmation of an Infrared-luminous, Broad-line Little Red Dot with an Ionized Outflow , , 984, 121, 10.3847/1538-4357/adc1ca

    2025 doi

  190. [202]

    J., Coil , A

    Weiner , B. J., Coil , A. L., Prochaska , J. X., et al. 2009, title Ubiquitous Outflows in DEEP2 Spectra of Star-Forming Galaxies at z = 1.4 , , 692, 187, 10.1088/0004-637X/692/1/187

    2009 doi

  191. [203]

    Wu , P.-F. 2025, title Ejective Feedback as a Quenching Mechanism in the First 1.5 Billion Years of the Universe: Detection of Neutral Gas Outflow in a z = 4 Recently Quenched Galaxy , , 978, 131, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad98ef

    2025 doi

  192. [204]

    Q., Luo , B., Brandt , W

    Xue , Y. Q., Luo , B., Brandt , W. N., et al. 2016, title The 2 Ms Chandra Deep Field-North Survey and the 250 ks Extended Chandra Deep Field-South Survey: Improved Point-source Catalogs , , 224, 15, 10.3847/0067-0049/224/2/15

    2016 doi

  193. [205]

    Q., Luo , B., Brandt , W

    Xue , Y. Q., Luo , B., Brandt , W. N., et al. 2011, title The Chandra Deep Field-South Survey: 4 Ms Source Catalogs , , 195, 10, 10.1088/0067-0049/195/1/10

    2011 doi

  194. [206]

    C., Newman , J

    Yan , R., Ho , L. C., Newman , J. A., et al. 2011, title AEGIS: Demographics of X-ray and Optically Selected Active Galactic Nuclei , , 728, 38, 10.1088/0004-637X/728/1/38

    2011 doi

  195. [207]

    G., Adelman , J., Anderson , Jr., J

    York , D. G., Adelman , J., Anderson , Jr., J. E., et al. 2000, title The Sloan Digital Sky Survey: Technical Summary , , 120, 1579, 10.1086/301513

    2000 doi

  196. [208]

    R., Ciardullo , R., Gebhardt , H., et al

    Zeimann , G. R., Ciardullo , R., Gebhardt , H., et al. 2015, title Hubble Space Telescope Emission-line Galaxies at z -0.5ex 2: The Mystery of Neon , , 798, 29, 10.1088/0004-637X/798/1/29

    2015 doi

  197. [209]

    A., Telfer , R

    Zheng , W., Kriss , G. A., Telfer , R. C., Grimes , J. P., & Davidsen , A. F. 1997, title A Composite HST Spectrum of Quasars , , 475, 469, 10.1086/303560

    1997 doi

  198. [210]

    J., Sutherland , R

    Zhu , P., Kewley , L. J., Sutherland , R. S., & Grasha , K. 2025, title A Theoretical Three-Dimensional Diagram to Separate Star Formation, Active Galactic Nuclei, and Shocks in Galaxies , arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2506.09962. 2506.09962

    2025 arXiv

Pith tools

Reviewed August 6, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.