pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2605.11811 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-12 · 📡 eess.SP

Recognition: no theorem link

Long-Range Backscatter: A Bottom-Up Approach

Gilles Callebaut, Liesbet Van der Perre, Tijl Schepens

Pith reviewed 2026-05-13 05:44 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 📡 eess.SP
keywords long-range backscatterenergy-neutral IoTchirp spread spectrumLPWANmedium access controlhardware architecturessystem topologies
0
0 comments X

The pith

Long-range backscatter communication enables energy-neutral IoT by reaching one to three orders of magnitude lower power consumption than active radios.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper surveys long-range backscatter communication through a bottom-up analysis of system topologies, hardware architectures, modulation techniques, and medium access control. It shows how these elements can be combined to support long-range links while keeping power low enough to match energy harvested from solar, RF, or capacitive sources. A sympathetic reader would care because the wireless link is currently the main barrier to fully energy-neutral IoT nodes that could operate indefinitely without batteries.

Core claim

By examining backscatter from the level of system topologies required for extended range, through hardware that modulates reflected signals at different power and complexity levels, to modulation schemes including binary switching and chirp spread spectrum plus lightweight MAC protocols for synchronization and concurrency, the survey establishes that active-radio concepts can be adapted to low-power tags and matched to specific harvested-energy budgets for feasible energy-neutral IoT applications.

What carries the argument

The bottom-up analysis framework that links topologies for longer distance, hardware for low-power modulated reflection, chirp spread spectrum and binary modulation for robustness versus simplicity, and MAC methods focused on low-complexity synchronization and feedback.

Load-bearing premise

Concepts from active radio systems such as chirp spread spectrum modulation can be integrated on low-power backscatter tags without eroding the power advantage or range performance.

What would settle it

A laboratory or field measurement of actual power consumption and achieved range for a prototype chirp-spread-spectrum backscatter tag compared against the energy budget available from a realistic harvester such as a small solar cell.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.11811 by Gilles Callebaut, Liesbet Van der Perre, Tijl Schepens.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: The three main backscatter topologies [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Active node relaying backscatter communication to the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Square wave modulation in digital solutions generates [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Principle schematic of a modulator using multiple [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: DMA outputs a waveform directly onto a GPIO to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Principle schematic of a conventional carrier cancella [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Different modulation techniques using a square wave [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Principle schematic how 2-FSK is generated on a low [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Chirp-based OOK relies on the gateway for generating [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_11.png] view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Chirp-interval modulation backscatters ambient chirps [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_13.png] view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Decoding OOK modulated backscatter chirps using [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_12.png] view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Misalignment between the start of the chirp and the [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_14.png] view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Blind chirp modulation shifts incoming chirps twice [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_15.png] view at source ↗
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Every tag shifts incoming LoRa packets with a slightly [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_18.png] view at source ↗
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Codeword translation needs to manipulate the right [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_17.png] view at source ↗
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Enable concurrent transmissions by assigning a unique [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_19.png] view at source ↗
Figure 20
Figure 20. Figure 20: Comparison between using linear and curved LoRa [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_20.png] view at source ↗
Figure 21
Figure 21. Figure 21: An MCU controls a DAC/VCO to generate non-linear [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_21.png] view at source ↗
Figure 22
Figure 22. Figure 22: The ambient signal detection circuits used by [38]. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_22.png] view at source ↗
Figure 24
Figure 24. Figure 24: The current flows in the capacitive harvesting sys [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_24.png] view at source ↗
Figure 25
Figure 25. Figure 25: Comparison of the different technologies utilizing [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_25.png] view at source ↗
Figure 27
Figure 27. Figure 27: Energy needed to compensate for leakage in different [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p018_27.png] view at source ↗
Figure 28
Figure 28. Figure 28: Different topologies that can be used to monitor plants. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p020_28.png] view at source ↗
Figure 29
Figure 29. Figure 29: Energy required daily to backscatter onto ambient [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p020_29.png] view at source ↗
Figure 30
Figure 30. Figure 30: Tracking goods in the logistics chain has its main challenge in the environment. Tags are placed close to gateways [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p021_30.png] view at source ↗
Figure 31
Figure 31. Figure 31: Different polynomial functions giving chirps different [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_31.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Continued progress towards energy-neutral Internet of Things (IoT) nodes expose the wireless communication link as the dominant energy bottleneck. While low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) technologies achieve long-range communication with multiple years of battery life, their active radios hinder reaching full energy neutrality. Long-range backscatter communication emerged as a key enabler, reaching one to three order of magnitude lower power consumption. New advancements leverage concepts from active radio systems such as chirp spread spectrum (CSS) modulation and integrate them on a low-power backscatter tag. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of long-range backscatter communication, using a bottom-up analysis spanning system topologies, hardware architecture, modulation techniques and medium access. Backscatter communication requires different topologies compared to active radios to reach longer communication distances. Different hardware architectures support backscattering a modulated signal with differing complexity, power consumption and spectral efficiency. At the physical layer binary switch-based modulation are well known and provide an easy form of modulation while chirp spread spectrum (CSS)-based modulation gain traction due to their robustness. Medium Access Control (MAC) techniques are examined with a focus on synchronization, concurrency and lightweight feedback mechanisms requiring low-power, low-complexity hardware. Building on these established solutions the paper evaluates the feasibility of long-range backscatter communication in different energy-neutral Internet of Things (IoT) applications. Starting from the available energy budget, harvested through solar, radio frequency (RF) or capacitive harvesting, feasible hardware, modulation and Medium Access Control (MAC) solutions are explored.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 0 minor

Summary. The manuscript is a literature survey on long-range backscatter communication for energy-neutral IoT nodes. It claims that backscatter achieves one to three orders of magnitude lower power consumption than active LPWAN radios and supports energy neutrality. Using a bottom-up structure, the paper reviews system topologies needed for extended range, hardware architectures for modulated backscattering, physical-layer techniques (binary switching and chirp spread spectrum/CSS modulation), MAC protocols emphasizing low-complexity synchronization and concurrency, and application feasibility given energy budgets from solar, RF, or capacitive harvesting.

Significance. If the survey provides balanced and comprehensive coverage of the cited literature, it could consolidate knowledge on power-efficient long-range links and help researchers evaluate the practicality of integrating active-radio concepts such as CSS into backscatter tags without losing the core power advantage.

major comments (1)
  1. The central claim that CSS modulation can be integrated on low-power backscatter tags while preserving the 1–3 order-of-magnitude power advantage (stated in the abstract and introduction) is load-bearing for the feasibility evaluation in the final section. The survey should explicitly reference or tabulate measured tag power consumption and link budgets for CSS implementations versus binary modulation to confirm that the advantage is retained under realistic range and harvesting conditions.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive feedback and the recommendation for minor revision. We address the major comment below and will incorporate the suggested changes to strengthen the manuscript.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: The central claim that CSS modulation can be integrated on low-power backscatter tags while preserving the 1–3 order-of-magnitude power advantage (stated in the abstract and introduction) is load-bearing for the feasibility evaluation in the final section. The survey should explicitly reference or tabulate measured tag power consumption and link budgets for CSS implementations versus binary modulation to confirm that the advantage is retained under realistic range and harvesting conditions.

    Authors: We agree that a dedicated comparison would better substantiate the central claim and support the feasibility analysis. In the revised manuscript we will add a new table (in Section IV on physical-layer techniques) that compiles measured tag power consumption, link budgets, and operating ranges reported in the cited literature for both CSS-based and binary-switch backscatter implementations. We will also cross-reference these values explicitly in the energy-budget feasibility evaluation (Section VI) to demonstrate that the 1–3 order-of-magnitude advantage is retained under realistic harvesting conditions. This addition draws directly from the surveyed works without introducing new claims. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; survey aggregates external results

full rationale

This manuscript is a literature survey presenting a bottom-up review of long-range backscatter topologies, hardware architectures, CSS modulation, and MAC protocols drawn from prior external work. No new equations, derivations, fitted parameters, or first-principles predictions are introduced that could reduce to the paper's own inputs by construction. All quantitative claims (e.g., 1–3 orders of magnitude power reduction) are explicitly attributed to cited literature rather than self-defined or self-cited results. The structure contains no self-definitional loops, renamed empirical patterns presented as novel unification, or load-bearing uniqueness theorems imported from the authors' prior work.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

This is a survey paper with no new mathematical models, derivations, or empirical fits. No free parameters, axioms, or invented entities are introduced.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5576 in / 1006 out tokens · 107965 ms · 2026-05-13T05:44:02.610677+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

97 extracted references · 97 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    Comparison of the device lifetime in wireless networks for the internet of things,

    E. Morin, M. Maman, R. Guizzetti, and A. Duda, “Comparison of the device lifetime in wireless networks for the internet of things,” IEEE Access, vol. 5, pp. 7097–7114, 2017

    work page 2017

  2. [2]

    Energy consumption analysis of lpwan technologies and lifetime estimation for iot application,

    R. K. Singh, P. P. Puluckul, R. Berkvens, and M. Weyn, “Energy consumption analysis of lpwan technologies and lifetime estimation for iot application,”Sensors, vol. 20, no. 17, p. 4794, 2020

    work page 2020

  3. [3]

    Threats of internet- of-thing on environmental sustainability by e-waste,

    B. Modarress Fathi, A. Ansari, and A. Ansari, “Threats of internet- of-thing on environmental sustainability by e-waste,”Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 16, p. 10 161, 2022

    work page 2022

  4. [4]

    Energy neutral design of an iot system for pollution monitoring,

    M. Rossi and P. Tosato, “Energy neutral design of an iot system for pollution monitoring,” in2017 IEEE Workshop on Environmental, Energy, and Structural Monitoring Systems (EESMS), IEEE, 2017, pp. 1–6

    work page 2017

  5. [5]

    Energy neutral machine learning based iot device for pest detection in precision agriculture,

    D. Brunelli, A. Albanese, D. d’Acunto, and M. Nardello, “Energy neutral machine learning based iot device for pest detection in precision agriculture,”IEEE Internet of Things Magazine, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 10–13, 2019

    work page 2019

  6. [6]

    Lora backscatter: Enabling the vision of ubiquitous con- nectivity,

    V . Talla, M. Hessar, B. Kellogg, A. Najafi, J. R. Smith, and S. Gollakota, “Lora backscatter: Enabling the vision of ubiquitous con- nectivity,”Proceedings of the ACM on interactive, mobile, wearable and ubiquitous technologies, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 1–24, 2017

    work page 2017

  7. [7]

    The art of designing remote iot devices– technologies and strategies for a long battery life,

    G. Callebaut, G. Leenders, J. Van Mulders, G. Ottoy, L. De Strycker, and L. Van der Perre, “The art of designing remote iot devices– technologies and strategies for a long battery life,”Sensors, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 913, 2021

    work page 2021

  8. [8]

    An Energy-Efficient LoRa Multi-Hop Protocol through Preamble Sampling for Remote Sensing,

    G. Leenders, G. Callebaut, G. Ottoy, L. Van der Perre, and L. De Strycker, “An Energy-Efficient LoRa Multi-Hop Protocol through Preamble Sampling for Remote Sensing,”Sensors, vol. 23, no. 11, p. 4994, 2023

    work page 2023

  9. [9]

    A novel carrier suppression method for rfid,

    T. Brauner and X. Zhao, “A novel carrier suppression method for rfid,”IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 128–130, 2009

    work page 2009

  10. [10]

    Direct link interference suppression for bistatic backscatter communication in distributed mimo,

    A. Kaplan, J. Vieira, and E. G. Larsson, “Direct link interference suppression for bistatic backscatter communication in distributed mimo,”IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 1024–1036, 2024.DOI: 10.1109/TWC.2023.3285250

    work page doi:10.1109/twc.2023.3285250 2024

  11. [11]

    Wireless Identification and Sensing Platform Version 6.0,

    R. Menon, R. Gujarathi, A. Saffari, and J. R. Smith, “Wireless Identification and Sensing Platform Version 6.0,” inProceedings of the 20th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems, ser. SenSys ’22, New York, NY , USA: Association for Computing Machinery, Jan. 24, 2023, pp. 899–905,ISBN: 978-1-4503-9886-2. DOI: 10.1145/3560905.3568109 Accessed: ...

    work page doi:10.1145/3560905.3568109 2023

  12. [12]

    Fully integrated passive UHF RFID transponder IC with 16.7-µWminimum RF input power,

    U. Karthaus and M. Fischer, “Fully integrated passive UHF RFID transponder IC with 16.7-µWminimum RF input power,”IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 38, no. 10, pp. 1602–1608, Oct. 2003,ISSN: 1558-173X.DOI: 10.1109/JSSC.2003.817249 Accessed: Mar. 10, 2026. [Online]. Available: https : / / ieeexplore . ieee . org / document/1233745

    work page doi:10.1109/jssc.2003.817249 2003

  13. [13]

    Harmonic suppression in frequency shifted backscatter communica- tions,

    Y . Ding, R. Lihakanga, R. Correia, G. Goussetis, and N. B. Carvalho, “Harmonic suppression in frequency shifted backscatter communica- tions,”IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society, vol. 1, pp. 990–999, 2020

    work page 2020

  14. [14]

    Xorlora: Lora backscatter com- munication with commodity devices,

    H. Li, X. Tong, Q. Li, and X. Tian, “Xorlora: Lora backscatter com- munication with commodity devices,” in2020 IEEE 6th International Conference on Computer and Communications (ICCC), IEEE, 2020, pp. 706–711

    work page 2020

  15. [15]

    RF- transformer: A unified backscatter radio hardware abstraction,

    X. Guo, Y . He, Z. Yu, J. Zhang, Y . Liu, and L. Shangguan, “RF- transformer: A unified backscatter radio hardware abstraction,” in Proceedings of the 28th annual international conference on mobile computing and networking, 2022, pp. 446–458

    work page 2022

  16. [16]

    IQ impedance modulator front-end for low-power LoRa backscattering devices,

    D. Belo et al., “IQ impedance modulator front-end for low-power LoRa backscattering devices,”IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 67, no. 12, pp. 5307–5314, 2019

    work page 2019

  17. [17]

    Chirp Based Backscatter Modulation,

    R. Correia et al., “Chirp Based Backscatter Modulation,” in2019 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium (IMS), Jun. 2019, pp. 279–282.DOI: 10 . 1109 / MWSYM . 2019 . 8700913 Accessed: Mar. 10, 2026. [Online]. Available: https : / / ieeexplore . ieee . org / abstract/document/8700913

    work page arXiv 2019

  18. [18]

    Hitchhike: Practical backscatter using commodity wifi,

    P. Zhang, D. Bharadia, K. Joshi, and S. Katti, “Hitchhike: Practical backscatter using commodity wifi,” inProceedings of the 14th ACM conference on embedded network sensor systems CD-ROM, 2016, pp. 259–271

    work page 2016

  19. [19]

    Inductor-free lora backscatter,

    F. Zhu et al., “Inductor-free lora backscatter,”IEEE Transactions on Networking, 2025

    work page 2025

  20. [20]

    Novel Load-Free SSB Modulation for LoRa Backscatter Communication,

    J. Li et al., “Novel Load-Free SSB Modulation for LoRa Backscatter Communication,”IEEE Wireless Communications Letters, pp. 1–1, 2025,ISSN: 2162-2345.DOI: 10.1109/LWC.2025.3610688 Accessed: Oct. 7, 2025

    work page doi:10.1109/lwc.2025.3610688 2025

  21. [21]

    Simplifying backscat- ter deployment:{Full-Duplex}{LoRa}backscatter,

    M. Katanbaf, A. Weinand, and V . Talla, “Simplifying backscat- ter deployment:{Full-Duplex}{LoRa}backscatter,” in18th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI 21), 2021, pp. 955–972

    work page 2021

  22. [22]

    Self-sustainable long-range backscat- tering communication using RF energy harvesting,

    X. Tang, G. Xie, and Y . Cui, “Self-sustainable long-range backscat- tering communication using RF energy harvesting,”IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 8, no. 17, pp. 13 737–13 749, 2021

    work page 2021

  23. [23]

    Prototype Implementation and Experimental Evaluation for LoRa-Backscatter Communication Systems With RF Energy Harvesting and Low Power Management,

    X. Tang, X. Liu, G. Xie, Y . Cui, and D. Li, “Prototype Implementation and Experimental Evaluation for LoRa-Backscatter Communication Systems With RF Energy Harvesting and Low Power Management,” IEEE Transactions on Communications, vol. 73, no. 7, pp. 4811– 4825, Jul. 2025,ISSN: 1558-0857.DOI: 10 . 1109 / TCOMM . 2024 . 3522052 Accessed: Oct. 10, 2025

    work page 2025

  24. [24]

    Home surveil- lance system based on lora backscattering,

    M. Lazaro, A. Lazaro, R. Villarino, and D. Girbau, “Home surveil- lance system based on lora backscattering,”Scientific Reports, vol. 15, no. 1, p. 12 063, 2025

    work page 2025

  25. [25]

    Long range and low powered RFID tags with tunnel diode,

    F. Amato, C. W. Peterson, M. B. Akbar, and G. D. Durgin, “Long range and low powered RFID tags with tunnel diode,” in2015 IEEE International Conference on RFID Technology and Applications (RFID-TA), IEEE, 2015, pp. 182–187

    work page 2015

  26. [26]

    TunnelScatter: Low Power Communication for Sensor Tags using Tunnel Diodes,

    A. Varshney, A. Soleiman, and T. V oigt, “TunnelScatter: Low Power Communication for Sensor Tags using Tunnel Diodes,” inThe 25th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Net- working, ser. MobiCom ’19, New York, NY , USA: Association for Computing Machinery, Oct. 11, 2019, pp. 1–17,ISBN: 978-1-4503- 6169-9.DOI: 10.1145/3300061.3345451 Acce...

    work page doi:10.1145/3300061.3345451 2019

  27. [27]

    Tunnel emitter: Tunnel diode based low-power carrier emitters for backscatter tags,

    A. Varshney and L. Corneo, “Tunnel emitter: Tunnel diode based low-power carrier emitters for backscatter tags,” inProceedings of the 26th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, ser. MobiCom ’20, New York, NY , USA: Association for Computing Machinery, Sep. 18, 2020, pp. 1–14,ISBN: 978-1-4503- 7085-1.DOI: 10.1145/3372224.34191...

    work page doi:10.1145/3372224.3419199 2020

  28. [28]

    Enabling Cross- Band Backscatter Communication With Twaltz,

    X. Guo, B. Liu, N. Jing, C. Gu, Y . Shu, and J. Chen, “Enabling Cross- Band Backscatter Communication With Twaltz,”IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, vol. 24, no. 11, pp. 11 323–11 336, Nov. 2025, ISSN: 1558-0660.DOI: 10 . 1109 / TMC . 2025 . 3581900 Accessed: Oct. 10, 2025

    work page 2025

  29. [29]

    Carrier extraction cancellation circuit in rfid reader for improving the tx-to-rx isolation,

    M. Zhonghua and J. Yanfeng, “Carrier extraction cancellation circuit in rfid reader for improving the tx-to-rx isolation,”IET Circuits, Devices & Systems, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 622–629, 2019

    work page 2019

  30. [30]

    Backfi: High throughput wifi backscatter,

    D. Bharadia, K. R. Joshi, M. Kotaru, and S. Katti, “Backfi: High throughput wifi backscatter,”ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communi- cation Review, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 283–296, 2015

    work page 2015

  31. [31]

    AllSpark: Enabling long-range backscatter for vehicle-to-infrastructure communication,

    X. Wang et al., “AllSpark: Enabling long-range backscatter for vehicle-to-infrastructure communication,”IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 9, no. 24, pp. 25 525–25 537, 2022

    work page 2022

  32. [32]

    LoRea: A backscatter architecture that achieves a long communication range,

    A. Varshney, O. Harms, C. P ´erez-Penichet, C. Rohner, F. Hermans, and T. V oigt, “LoRea: A backscatter architecture that achieves a long communication range,” inProceedings of the 15th ACM Conference on Embedded Network Sensor Systems, 2017, pp. 1–14

    work page 2017

  33. [33]

    The New Era of Long-Range “Zero-Interception

    S. N. Daskalakis, A. Georgiadis, M. M. Tentzeris, G. Goussetis, and G. Deligeorgis, “The New Era of Long-Range “Zero-Interception” Ambient Backscattering Systems: 130 m with 130 nA Front-End Consumption,”Sensors, vol. 22, no. 11, p. 4151, 2022

    work page 2022

  34. [34]

    Free- back: Blind and distributed rate adaptation in lora-based backscatter networks,

    G. Huang, P. Yang, H. Zhou, Y . Yan, X. He, and X. Li, “Free- back: Blind and distributed rate adaptation in lora-based backscatter networks,” in2021 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), IEEE, 2021, pp. 1–6

    work page 2021

  35. [35]

    Harmonic Long- Range Backscatter with Frequency-Shifted Lightweight Tag,

    J. Lin, X. Zhang, R. Xu, G. Wang, and T. Q. Quek, “Harmonic Long- Range Backscatter with Frequency-Shifted Lightweight Tag,” in2024 IEEE 100th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2024-Fall), IEEE, 2024, pp. 1–5

    work page 2024

  36. [36]

    Aloba: Rethinking ON-OFF keying modulation for ambient LoRa backscatter,

    X. Guo et al., “Aloba: Rethinking ON-OFF keying modulation for ambient LoRa backscatter,” inProceedings of the 18th conference on embedded networked sensor systems, 2020, pp. 192–204

    work page 2020

  37. [37]

    Ambient LoRa backscatter system with chirp interval modulation,

    Y . Peng, S. He, Y . Zhang, Z. Niu, L. Xiao, and T. Jiang, “Ambient LoRa backscatter system with chirp interval modulation,”IEEE Trans- actions on Wireless Communications, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 1328–1342, 2022

    work page 2022

  38. [38]

    PLoRa: A passive long-range data network from ambient LoRa transmissions,

    Y . Peng et al., “PLoRa: A passive long-range data network from ambient LoRa transmissions,” inProceedings of the 2018 conference of the ACM special interest group on data communication, 2018, pp. 147–160

    work page 2018

  39. [39]

    Long-range ambient LoRa backscatter with parallel decoding,

    J. Jiang, Z. Xu, F. Dang, and J. Wang, “Long-range ambient LoRa backscatter with parallel decoding,” inProceedings of the 27th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, 2021, pp. 684–696

    work page 2021

  40. [40]

    Freerider: Backscatter communication using commodity radios,

    P. Zhang, C. Josephson, D. Bharadia, and S. Katti, “Freerider: Backscatter communication using commodity radios,” inProceedings of the 13th international conference on emerging networking experi- ments and technologies, 2017, pp. 389–401

    work page 2017

  41. [41]

    Complete reverse engineering of lora phy,

    T. Joachim, “Complete reverse engineering of lora phy,”Re- verse Eng Report. pdf, 2019

    work page 2019

  42. [42]

    Room-level localization system based on lora backscatters,

    A. Lazaro, M. Lazaro, and R. Villarino, “Room-level localization system based on lora backscatters,”Ieee Access, vol. 9, pp. 16 004– 16 018, 2021

    work page 2021

  43. [43]

    Saiyan: Design and implementation of a low-power demodulator for{LoRa}backscatter systems,

    X. Guo et al., “Saiyan: Design and implementation of a low-power demodulator for{LoRa}backscatter systems,” in19th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI 22), 2022, pp. 437–451

    work page 2022

  44. [44]

    A low-power demodulator for lora backscatter systems with frequency- amplitude transformation,

    X. Guo, Y . He, J. Nan, J. Zhang, Y . Liu, and L. Shangguan, “A low-power demodulator for lora backscatter systems with frequency- amplitude transformation,”IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2024

    work page 2024

  45. [45]

    {NetScatter}: Enabling {Large-Scale}Backscatter Networks,

    M. Hessar, A. Najafi, and S. Gollakota, “{NetScatter}: Enabling {Large-Scale}Backscatter Networks,” in16th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI 19), 2019, pp. 271–284

    work page 2019

  46. [46]

    CPLoRa: Parallel LoRa Backscatter Communications Compatible with Com- modity LoRa Receivers,

    Z. Li, S. Gong, L. Li, B. Lyu, F. Li, and D. Niyato, “CPLoRa: Parallel LoRa Backscatter Communications Compatible with Com- modity LoRa Receivers,” in2025 IEEE 102nd Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2025-Fall), Oct. 2025, pp. 1–5.DOI: 10 . 1109 / VTC2025 - Fall65116 . 2025 . 11310535 Accessed: Feb. 13, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://ieeexplore.ieee...

    work page 2025

  47. [47]

    {CurvingLoRa}to boost{LoRa}network throughput via concurrent transmission,

    C. Li, X. Guo, L. Shangguan, Z. Cao, and K. Jamieson, “{CurvingLoRa}to boost{LoRa}network throughput via concurrent transmission,” in19th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI 22), 2022, pp. 879–895

    work page 2022

  48. [48]

    Prism: High-throughput LoRa backscatter with non-linear chirps,

    Y . Ren, P. Cai, J. Jiang, J. Du, and Z. Cao, “Prism: High-throughput LoRa backscatter with non-linear chirps,” inIEEE INFOCOM 2023- IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, IEEE, 2023, pp. 1– 10

    work page 2023

  49. [49]

    Power sources for the internet of things,

    A. Raj and D. Steingart, “Power sources for the internet of things,” Journal of The Electrochemical Society, vol. 165, no. 8, B3130, 2018

    work page 2018

  50. [50]

    Panasonic Solar Amorton Co., Ltd.,Amorphous silicon solar cell (indoor use) am-1456 datasheet, Product specification datasheet, Panasonic Solar Amorton Co., Ltd., Apr. 2019. [Online]. Available: https://panasonic.net/electricworks/amorton/assets/pdf/spec PDF/ indoor/AM-1456.pdf

    work page 2019

  51. [51]

    Panasonic Solar Amorton Co., Ltd.,Amorphous silicon solar cell (indoor use) am-1437 datasheet, Product specification datasheet, Panasonic Solar Amorton Co., Ltd., Apr. 2019. [Online]. Available: https://panasonic.net/electricworks/amorton/assets/pdf/spec PDF/ indoor/AM-1437.pdf

    work page 2019

  52. [52]

    Light and lighting – lighting of workplaces – part 1: Indoor workplaces,

    “Light and lighting – lighting of workplaces – part 1: Indoor workplaces,” CEN, Standard, 2021. [Online]. Available: https : / / standards.iteh.ai/catalog/standards/cen/53fc4ff7- e7df- 4ebd- a730- 0d5f0ea888e0/en-12464-1-2021

    work page 2021

  53. [53]

    Strategies and techniques for powering wireless sensor nodes through energy harvesting and wireless power transfer,

    R. La Rosa, P. Livreri, C. Trigona, L. Di Donato, and G. Sorbello, “Strategies and techniques for powering wireless sensor nodes through energy harvesting and wireless power transfer,”Sensors, vol. 19, no. 12, p. 2660, 2019

    work page 2019

  54. [54]

    Keeping Energy-Neutral Devices Operational: A Coherent Massive Beamforming Approach,

    J. Van Mulders, B. Cox, B. J. B. Deutschmann, G. Callebaut, L. De Strycker, and L. Van der Perre, “Keeping Energy-Neutral Devices Operational: A Coherent Massive Beamforming Approach,” in2024 IEEE 25th International Workshop on Signal Processing Advances in Wireless Communications (SPAWC), Sep. 2024, pp. 6–10.DOI: 10 . 1109 / SPAWC60668 . 2024 . 10694523 ...

    work page 2024

  55. [55]

    CapHarvester: A stick-on capacitive energy har- vester using stray electric field from AC power lines,

    M. Gulati et al., “CapHarvester: A stick-on capacitive energy har- vester using stray electric field from AC power lines,”Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Tech- nologies, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 1–20, 2018

    work page 2018

  56. [56]

    KYOCERA A VX,Taj series – standard and low profile tantalum capacitors, https://datasheets.kyocera- avx.com/TAJ.pdf, Datasheet, accessed 2026-04-08

    work page 2026

  57. [57]

    Analysis of solid tantalum capacitor leakage cur- rent,

    R. W. Franklin, “Analysis of solid tantalum capacitor leakage cur- rent,” KYOCERA A VX Components Corporation, Paignton, Devon, United Kingdom, Technical Paper, Accessed: 2026-04-08. [Online]. Available: https://www.kyocera- avx.com/docs/techinfo/Tantalum- NiobiumCapacitors/soltant.pdf

    work page 2026

  58. [58]

    pdf, Document Number: KEM S6011 FC, 2023

    KEMET Electronics Corporation,Fc series supercapacitors datasheet, https://content.kemet.com/datasheets/KEM S6011 FC. pdf, Document Number: KEM S6011 FC, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://content.kemet.com/datasheets/KEM S6011 FC.pdf

    work page 2023

  59. [59]

    Characterization of lora point-to- point path loss: Measurement campaigns and modeling considering censored data,

    G. Callebaut and L. Van der Perre, “Characterization of lora point-to- point path loss: Measurement campaigns and modeling considering censored data,”IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1910–1918, 2019

    work page 1910

  60. [60]

    De- velopment of an Ultra-Low-Power Bidirectional LoRa Backscatter Tag,

    T. Steinmann, F. Riedel, T. Schaechtle, and S. J. Rupitsch, “De- velopment of an Ultra-Low-Power Bidirectional LoRa Backscatter Tag,” in2025 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), May 2025, pp. 1–6.DOI: 10.1109/ I2MTC62753.2025.11078945 Accessed: Oct. 7, 2025

    work page arXiv 2025

  61. [61]

    A compact low-power uhf rfid tag,

    A. Ashry, K. Sharaf, and M. Ibrahim, “A compact low-power uhf rfid tag,”Microelectronics Journal, vol. 40, no. 11, pp. 1504–1513, 2009

    work page 2009

  62. [62]

    Design and implementation of an ultra-low power passive uhf rfid tag,

    J. Shen et al., “Design and implementation of an ultra-low power passive uhf rfid tag,”Journal of Semiconductors, vol. 33, no. 11, p. 115 011, 2012

    work page 2012

  63. [63]

    C. P. Bald ´e et al.,The global e-waste monitor 2024, Accessed 15 May 2025, International Telecommunication Union (ITU), United Nations Institute for Training, and Research (UNITAR), 2024. [Online]. Available: https : / / ewastemonitor. info / wp - content / uploads / 2024 / 12/GEM 2024 EN 11 NOV-web.pdf

    work page 2024

  64. [64]

    S. Kaza, L. Yao, P. Bhada-Tata, and F. Van Woerden,What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Publications, 2018. 27

    work page 2050

  65. [65]

    Update of weee collection rates, targets, flows, and hoarding — 2021 in the eu-27, united kingdom, norway, switzerland, and iceland,

    C. Bald ´e, G. Iattoni, C. Xu, and T. Yamamoto, “Update of weee collection rates, targets, flows, and hoarding — 2021 in the eu-27, united kingdom, norway, switzerland, and iceland,” United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), SCYCLE Programme, Bonn, Germany, Tech. Rep., 2022, Study conducted in collaboration with the WEEE Forum. [Online]...

    work page 2021

  66. [66]

    LLC,Adcm-s07r5s supercapacitor module datasheet, Accessed: 2025-10-03, 2023

    A. LLC,Adcm-s07r5s supercapacitor module datasheet, Accessed: 2025-10-03, 2023. [Online]. Available: https : / / abracon . com / datasheets/ADCM-S07R5S.pdf

    work page 2025

  67. [67]

    LLC,Ahcr-s04r0s series lithium-ion capacitor datasheet, Ac- cessed: 2025-10-08, 2021

    A. LLC,Ahcr-s04r0s series lithium-ion capacitor datasheet, Ac- cessed: 2025-10-08, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://abracon.com/ datasheets/AHCR-S04R0S.pdf

    work page 2025

  68. [68]

    U. N. D. of Economic and S. Affairs,World Population Prospects

    work page

  69. [69]

    [Online]

    United Nations, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.un- ilibrary.org/content/books/9789211065138

    work page arXiv 2024

  70. [70]

    Internet of things enabled smart agriculture: Current status, latest advancements, challenges and countermeasures,

    N. N. Thilakarathne, M. S. A. Bakar, P. E. Abas, and H. Yassin, “Internet of things enabled smart agriculture: Current status, latest advancements, challenges and countermeasures,”Heliyon, vol. 11, no. 3, 2025

    work page 2025

  71. [71]

    Panasonic Solar Amorton Co., Ltd.,Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells Specification: Model AM-5815, Technical datasheet (PDF), Accessed April 13, 2026, Jul. 2019. [Online]. Available: https://panasonic.net/ electricworks/amorton/assets/pdf/spec PDF/outdoor/AM-5815.pdf

    work page 2026

  72. [72]

    Drone fleet deployment strategy for large scale agriculture and forestry surveying,

    M. Liang and D. Delahaye, “Drone fleet deployment strategy for large scale agriculture and forestry surveying,” in2019 IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference (ITSC), IEEE, 2019, pp. 4495– 4500

    work page 2019

  73. [73]

    AeroEcho: Towards Agricultural Low-power Wide-area Backscatter with Aerial Exci- tation Source,

    Y . Ren, G. Li, Y . Liu, Y . Dong, and Z. Cao, “AeroEcho: Towards Agricultural Low-power Wide-area Backscatter with Aerial Exci- tation Source,” inIEEE INFOCOM 2025 - IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, May 2025, pp. 1–10.DOI: 10 . 1109 / INFOCOM55648.2025.11044614 Accessed: Oct. 10, 2025

    work page arXiv 2025

  74. [74]

    The evolution of rfid technology in the logistics field: A review,

    G. Casella, B. Bigliardi, and E. Bottani, “The evolution of rfid technology in the logistics field: A review,”Procedia Computer Science, vol. 200, pp. 1582–1592, 2022

    work page 2022

  75. [75]

    Lobaca: Super-resolution lora backscatter local- ization for low-cost tags,

    B. Hou and J. Wang, “Lobaca: Super-resolution lora backscatter local- ization for low-cost tags,” inIEEE INFOCOM 2024-IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, IEEE, 2024, pp. 1081–1090

    work page 2024

  76. [76]

    Locra: Enable practical long-range backscatter localization for low-cost tags,

    J. Jiang, J. Wang, Y . Chen, Y . Liu, and Y . Liu, “Locra: Enable practical long-range backscatter localization for low-cost tags,” in Proceedings of the 21st Annual International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications and Services, 2023, pp. 317–329

    work page 2023

  77. [77]

    Life cycle assessment (lca) for printed electronics,

    L.-R. Zheng, H. Tenhunen, and Z. Zou, “Life cycle assessment (lca) for printed electronics,” 2018

    work page 2018

  78. [78]

    Lora backscatter network efficient data transmission using rf source range control.,

    D.-Y . Kim, S. Lee, and S. Kim, “Lora backscatter network efficient data transmission using rf source range control.,”Computers, Mate- rials & Continua, vol. 74, no. 2, 2023

    work page 2023

  79. [79]

    Strengthening epc tags against cloning,

    A. Juels, “Strengthening epc tags against cloning,” inProceedings of the 4th ACM workshop on Wireless security, 2005, pp. 67–76

    work page 2005

  80. [80]

    Backscatter communication meets practical battery- free internet of things: A survey and outlook,

    T. Jiang et al., “Backscatter communication meets practical battery- free internet of things: A survey and outlook,”IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 2021–2051, 2023

    work page 2021

Showing first 80 references.