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arxiv: 2606.06029 · v1 · pith:EMK5AVK5new · submitted 2026-06-04 · ✦ hep-ex

Mountain Muography for China Jinping Underground Laboratory

Xinshun Zhang , Shaomin Chen , Wei Dou , Haoyang Fu , Lei Guo , Ziyi Guo , XiangPan Ji , Jianmin Li
show 26 more authors
Jinjing Li Bo Liang Ye Liang Qian Liu Wentai Luo Ming Qi Wenhui Shao Haozhe Sun Jian Tang Yuyi Wang Zhe Wang Changxu Wei Jun Weng Yiyang Wu Benda Xu Chuang Xu Tong Xu Tao Xue Haoyan Yang Yuzi Yang Aiqiang Zhang Bin Zhang Yang Zhang Zhicai Zhang Lin Zhao Yangheng Zheng
This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-27 23:01 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ✦ hep-ex
keywords muon radiographycosmic muonsdensity mappingoverburden structuremuographyterrain correlationunderground detector
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The pith

Cosmic muons detected deep underground reconstruct a directional opacity map of the mountain above that matches satellite terrain models.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper shows that a muon detector placed far underground can measure arrival rates from different directions and use those counts to map how much rock lies overhead. Comparing the underground data to predictions calculated from the mountain's surface shape produces a map of directional opacity that directly constrains the density distribution inside the mountain. This reconstructed map agrees closely with independent terrain information obtained from satellites. The match confirms that the correlation method works under more than two kilometers of overburden and supplies predicted muon rates for different parts of the underground facility.

Core claim

By correlating the predicted surface muon flux distributions with the underground measurements, the authors reconstruct a directional opacity map that constrains the density structure of the overburden and shows excellent agreement with satellite-derived terrain models. This establishes the feasibility of muography at extreme depths with kilometer-scale overburden and provides a validated overburden model for predicting total muon fluxes in multiple experimental halls.

What carries the argument

Directional opacity map obtained by correlating predicted surface muon fluxes with underground detector counts.

If this is right

  • Muography becomes practical for non-invasive density mapping beneath kilometer-scale overburden.
  • The method supplies a 3 km lateral range density map at approximately 4.5 degree angular resolution.
  • Validated overburden models allow calculation of expected muon backgrounds for physics experiments in multiple halls.
  • The same correlation technique supplies a template for geophysical surveys at other large underground sites.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Repeated muon measurements over time could detect slow changes in overburden density such as water content shifts.
  • The approach could be combined with surface gravity or seismic data to resolve three-dimensional density variations inside the mountain.
  • Angular resolution limits mean only density features larger than a few hundred meters across are reliably mapped.

Load-bearing premise

Surface muon flux distributions can be predicted from terrain models with enough accuracy that differences between prediction and underground data arise from real density variations rather than errors in the surface model.

What would settle it

An independent in-situ density measurement at any point inside the mountain that deviates from the value implied by the muon-derived opacity map at the corresponding direction would invalidate the reconstruction.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.06029 by Aiqiang Zhang, Benda Xu, Bin Zhang, Bo Liang, Changxu Wei, Chuang Xu, Haoyang Fu, Haoyan Yang, Haozhe Sun, Jianmin Li, Jian Tang, Jinjing Li, Jun Weng, Lei Guo, Lin Zhao, Ming Qi, Qian Liu, Shaomin Chen, Tao Xue, Tong Xu, Wei Dou, Wenhui Shao, Wentai Luo, XiangPan Ji, Xinshun Zhang, Yangheng Zheng, Yang Zhang, Ye Liang, Yiyang Wu, Yuyi Wang, Yuzi Yang, Zhe Wang, Zhicai Zhang, Ziyi Guo.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: FIG. 1. Schematic layout of the China Jinping Underground Laboratory (CJPL). [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p002_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: FIG. 2. Zenith angle [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: FIG. 3. Muon survival probability [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: FIG. 4. Schematic of the JNE 1-ton prototype detector. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: FIG. 5. (a): Schematic of the desaturation algorithm. The rising [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: FIG. 6. Deposited energy distribution of selected muon events from [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: FIG. 7. Reconstruction performance evaluated with the simulation. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: V. MUOGRAPHY Muography is performed by measuring the angular￾dependent muon flux. We divide the angular phase space into a 6 × 6 grid in cos θ and φ for the region cos θ > 0.4. Events with cos θ < 0.4 (near-horizontal) are excluded due to limited statistics. The integrated muon flux in each angular bin (θ, φ) is: ϕ(θ, φ) = N(θ, φ) ϵ · S(θ, φ) · T , (9) 100 200 300 400 500 600 X 300 400 500 600 700 800 Y Mi… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: FIG. 10. The effective survival probability profile [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: FIG. 11. (a): The measured underground muon flux [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_11.png] view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: FIG. 12. The evaluated performance of the muography method at [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_12.png] view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: FIG. 13. Comparison of the azimuth distributions for underground [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_13.png] view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: FIG. 15. Calculated time-varying effective temperature, [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_15.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The China Jinping Underground Laboratory (CJPL), located $\sim 2,400$~m beneath Jinping Mountain, is one of the world's deepest and largest ($\sim 300{,}000~\mathrm{m}^3$) underground facilities, hosting dark matter, nuclear astrophysics, and neutrino experiments. We report the first muon radiography (muography) conducted at this extraordinary depth. Cosmic muons detected by a one-ton prototype developed for the Jinping Neutrino Experiment were used to perform non-invasive subsurface density mapping over a 3~km lateral range. The 1.3~m diameter detector provides nearly isotropic acceptance and an angular resolution of $\sim 4.5^\circ$. By correlating the predicted surface muon flux distributions with the underground measurements, we reconstruct a directional opacity map that constrains the density structure of the overburden and shows excellent agreement with satellite-derived terrain models. This work demonstrates the feasibility of muography at extreme depths with kilometer-scale overburden and establishes a robust methodology for future geophysical applications and large-scale facilities, such as the full Jinping Neutrino Experiment. Based on this validated overburden model, we further predict the total muon fluxes for the eight experimental halls in CJPL-II, providing essential input for their physics programs.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 1 minor

Summary. The paper reports the first muon radiography (muography) performed at the China Jinping Underground Laboratory (CJPL) at ~2400 m depth. Using a one-ton prototype detector with ~4.5° angular resolution, the authors correlate predicted surface muon flux distributions (from satellite terrain models plus transport calculations) with underground rate measurements to reconstruct a directional opacity map of the overburden. They claim this map shows excellent agreement with satellite-derived terrain models, demonstrate feasibility at extreme depths, and provide predicted muon fluxes for the eight halls of CJPL-II.

Significance. If the quantitative validation holds, the result would establish the first successful muography at kilometer-scale overburden, supplying a validated density model for background estimation in dark-matter and neutrino experiments at CJPL-II and opening a non-invasive geophysical tool for large underground sites. The work supplies no machine-checked proofs or parameter-free derivations, but the experimental demonstration at this depth would be a concrete advance if the reconstruction uncertainties are shown to be sub-dominant.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the central claim of 'excellent agreement' between the reconstructed directional opacity map and satellite-derived terrain models is stated without any quantitative metric (reduced χ² per angular bin, residual map, goodness-of-fit value, or error bars on the opacity). Because the reconstruction explicitly uses the same terrain models to predict the surface flux that is then compared to data, the absence of these numbers prevents verification that residuals reflect density variations rather than transport or discretization systematics.
  2. [Reconstruction method] Reconstruction section (method description following the abstract): the correlation step that converts measured underground rates into directional opacity is presented without the explicit algorithm, binning choices, data-exclusion criteria, or propagation of uncertainties from the high-energy muon spectrum and rock Z/A. At CJPL depths only muons ≳ few TeV survive; the survival probability is exponentially sensitive to these inputs, so the missing details are load-bearing for the claim that the map constrains overburden density structure.
minor comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the detector diameter (1.3 m) and claimed near-isotropic acceptance are stated without a supporting figure or calculation showing how the angular resolution of ~4.5° is obtained or how acceptance varies with zenith angle at these depths.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive comments on our manuscript. We address each major point below and will revise the paper to incorporate quantitative agreement metrics and expanded methodological details as requested.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the central claim of 'excellent agreement' between the reconstructed directional opacity map and satellite-derived terrain models is stated without any quantitative metric (reduced χ² per angular bin, residual map, goodness-of-fit value, or error bars on the opacity). Because the reconstruction explicitly uses the same terrain models to predict the surface flux that is then compared to data, the absence of these numbers prevents verification that residuals reflect density variations rather than transport or discretization systematics.

    Authors: We agree that a quantitative metric is needed to support the claim. In revision we will add a reduced χ² value (or equivalent goodness-of-fit statistic), residual maps, and error bars on the opacity in both the abstract and results section. We will also clarify that the terrain model supplies the input flux prediction while the data-driven opacity map is compared to the same model; the comparison tests consistency rather than being fully independent, and the added metrics will allow readers to assess whether residuals exceed expected systematics. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Reconstruction method] Reconstruction section (method description following the abstract): the correlation step that converts measured underground rates into directional opacity is presented without the explicit algorithm, binning choices, data-exclusion criteria, or propagation of uncertainties from the high-energy muon spectrum and rock Z/A. At CJPL depths only muons ≳ few TeV survive; the survival probability is exponentially sensitive to these inputs, so the missing details are load-bearing for the claim that the map constrains overburden density structure.

    Authors: We accept that the method section requires additional explicit detail. The revised manuscript will expand the reconstruction description to specify the correlation algorithm, angular binning, data-exclusion criteria, and the propagation of uncertainties arising from the high-energy muon spectrum and rock Z/A values. We will also include a brief sensitivity study showing how variations in these inputs affect the derived opacity map. revision: yes

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged

Opacity map reconstruction correlates terrain-model predictions with data, rendering subsequent agreement with same models partially dependent

specific steps
  1. fitted input called prediction [Abstract]
    "By correlating the predicted surface muon flux distributions with the underground measurements, we reconstruct a directional opacity map that constrains the density structure of the overburden and shows excellent agreement with satellite-derived terrain models."

    Predicted fluxes originate from the satellite terrain models; the opacity map is obtained by fitting/correlating those predictions to the measured rates. The resulting map is then claimed to agree with the same terrain models, so the agreement is a direct statistical consequence of the correlation when data and predictions are close, rather than an independent validation of the density structure.

full rationale

The paper's load-bearing reconstruction step uses surface muon flux predictions (generated from satellite terrain models) correlated against underground measurements to produce the directional opacity map. This map is then asserted to show excellent agreement with the identical terrain models. Because the correlation procedure directly adjusts the map to reconcile data with the model predictions, close data-model agreement necessarily produces a map that aligns with the input terrain, making the validation step partially tautological rather than an independent external check. No equations or self-citations are quoted that would raise the score further, and the method retains some independent content from the actual underground counting rates.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on standard cosmic-muon flux models derived from surface topography; no new free parameters or invented entities appear in the abstract.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Cosmic muon flux at surface can be accurately modeled from terrain topography alone
    Invoked when correlating predicted distributions with underground measurements to reconstruct opacity (abstract).

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5857 in / 1291 out tokens · 27268 ms · 2026-06-27T23:01:38.188348+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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