The Sonora Substellar Atmosphere Models. VII. Flame Skimmer: Cloud-free Atmospheric and Evolutionary Models for the Coldest Substellar Objects

Caroline V. Morley; Channon Visscher; Ehsan Gharib-Nezhad; James Mang; Jonathan J. Fortney; Mark S. Marley; Natasha E. Batalha; Nicholas F. Wogan; Sagnick Mukherjee; Yayaati Chachan

REVIEW 3 major objections 7 minor 298 references

The Sonora Substellar Atmosphere Models. VII. Flame Skimmer: Cloud-free Atmospheric and Evolutionary Models for the Coldest Substellar Objects

T0 review · 3 major / 7 minor · reviewed 2026-08-15 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read Metal-rich atmospheres lower the mass needed for deuterium burning to about 5.4 Jupiter masses, the paper argues.

desk verdict A solid, community-ready grid that fills a real gap for JWST-era cold substellar work; the high-metallicity burning-limit numbers should carry a quantified caveat about the solar-H/He convective adiabat before being quoted as headline results. read the letter →

arxiv 2608.06454 v1 pith:RURPTE5W submitted 2026-08-06 astro-ph.EP astro-ph.SR

James Mang , Yayaati Chachan , Caroline V. Morley , Natasha E. Batalha , Nicholas F. Wogan , Sagnick Mukherjee , Jonathan J. Fortney , Mark S. Marley

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Channon Visscher Ehsan Gharib-Nezhad

This is my paper · ORCID

classification astro-ph.EPastro-ph.SR

keywords browndwarfsYsubstellaratmospheremodelsdisequilibriumchemistrydeuteriumburningminimummassmetallicityevolutionaryJWST

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper presents Sonora Flame Skimmer, a new grid of cloud-free atmospheric and evolutionary models for the coldest substellar objects, spanning effective temperatures from 50 to 2400 K, surface gravities down to $\log(g)=2$, metallicities from 0.1x to 100x solar, and C/O ratios up to 2.5 times solar. The grid is the first in the Sonora family to pair disequilibrium chemistry with self-consistent evolutionary tracks, and it updates the treatment of volatile condensation and CO$_2$ quenching. Its central result is that atmospheric metallicity strongly shapes cooling: metal-rich objects cool more slowly, and at 100x solar metallicity the minimum masses for deuterium and hydrogen burning drop to 5.39 and 45.03 $M_{\rm J}$. These models give observers a tool for interpreting JWST spectra of Y dwarfs and temperate giant planets, including the emerging population of directly imaged Neptune- and Saturn-like objects.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing machinery is the coupled atmosphere-interior calculation: the PICASO solver iterates to radiative-convective equilibrium with quench chemistry, then the evolution code matches the atmospheric entropy at 10 bar to a homogeneous adiabatic interior, so the atmosphere's opacity and chemistry set the cooling rate. Within the atmosphere, the new elements are the metallicity-dependent quench timescales from Zahnle and Marley, the CO$_2$ second-quench treatment, the removal of PH$_3$, and the rainout condensation of H$_2$O, NH$_3$, and CH$_4$ above their saturation pressures.

What would settle it

Recompute the [M/H] = +2.0 grid with a convective lapse rate that includes the heavy-element composition (a non-solar adiabat), and check whether the deuterium-burning minimum mass remains close to 5.39 $M_{\rm J}$; if it moves by more than about one Jupiter mass, the headline number is not robust. A complementary test is to measure CO$_2$ abundances in a metal-rich T/Y dwarf and see whether the second-quench prediction of one to two orders of magnitude enhancement holds.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that the Sonora Flame Skimmer grid, computed with the PICASO radiative-convective equilibrium code and matched at 10 bar to interior evolution models, is a valid and public description of substellar atmospheres from 2400 K down to 50 K. The paper argues that high-metallicity atmospheres slow cooling by raising opacity, that vertical mixing strength ($K_{\rm zz}$) barely affects evolutionary tracks, and that the extreme 100x solar case lowers the deuterium-burning minimum mass to 5.39 $M_{\rm J}$ and the hydrogen-burning minimum mass to 45.03 $M_{\rm J}$, roughly half the sub-solar value. It also introduces a physically motivated 'second quench' for CO$_2$, letting CO quench deep and then convert to CO$_2$ before CO$_2$ itself freezes out, raising CO$_2$ abundances by one to two orders of magnitude relative to earlier grids.

Load-bearing premise

The weakest spot is the assumption that a convective lapse rate computed for a pure solar-abundance H/He mixture stays accurate for atmospheres with up to 100 times solar metallicity, since the paper itself notes that a non-solar adiabat could shift the thermal structure and convective-zone locations.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

High-metallicity substellar objects (up to 100x solar) cool slower and stay brighter and hotter at a given age than solar-metallicity objects of the same mass.
The deuterium-burning minimum mass drops from 12.21 $M_{\rm J}$ at solar metallicity to 5.39 $M_{\rm J}$ at 100x solar, and the hydrogen-burning minimum mass drops from 77.92 to 45.03 $M_{\rm J}$, so composition alone can move objects across conventional brown-dwarf mass boundaries.
Disequilibrium chemistry shifts spectra significantly (especially via enhanced CO$_2$ at 4-5 microns) but has only a minor effect on radius and cooling tracks, so evolutionary ages are largely insensitive to $K_{\rm zz}$.
The condensation treatment removes the spuriously strong H$_2$O, NH$_3$, and CH$_4$ absorption features that earlier disequilibrium grids predicted for $T_{\rm eff}$ below roughly 300 K.
The grid extends low enough in temperature and gravity (50 K, $\log(g)=2$) to serve as a baseline for interpreting JWST observations of directly imaged temperate planets and Y dwarfs.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

If high metallicity truly lowers the deuterium-burning minimum mass this much, surveys for old, metal-rich 'planetary-mass' objects may find deuterium-depleted brown dwarfs with masses around 5-6 $M_{\rm J}$, blurring the usual planet/brown-dwarf division.
The paper's convective lapse rate assumes a solar H/He mixture even at 100x metallicity; testing with a metal-dependent adiabat could shift the quoted 5.39 $M_{\rm J}$ value, so the number should be read as a model-dependent estimate rather than a fixed threshold.
The same grid could be used to search for metallicity signatures in JWST color-magnitude diagrams: the paper predicts that high-metallicity objects are fainter in F444W and bluer in 4-5 micron colors due to CO$_2$, which offers a testable selection criterion.
Future cloudy versions of these cold models will likely slow cooling even further, meaning the cloud-free tracks presented here may bracket the fastest-cooling end of the substellar population.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

James, here's my read on 2608.06454. The paper delivers what it says: a cloud-free atmospheric and evolutionary grid from 50 to 2400 K, log(g) 2-5.5, metallicities -1 to +2, C/O up to 2.5x solar, with equilibrium and disequilibrium chemistry, and all of it public on Zenodo. That alone makes it a standard resource for JWST work on Y dwarfs and temperate giant planets. The genuinely new pieces are the self-consistent second-quench treatment for CO2, volatile condensation in the disequilibrium models, and the first Sonora evolution tracks with disequilibrium chemistry. The benchmarks against Bobcat and Elf Owl are honest and give me confidence that the framework changes don't break continuity with the earlier grids.

The soft spots are real but narrower than the headline hype. Section 4.1 states plainly that the RCE solver's convective lapse rate assumes a pure H/He mixture at solar abundances even for [M/H]=+2.0. The paper flags this itself, but then Table 3 quotes DBMM=5.39 and HBMM=45.03 MJ without an error bar. At 100x solar, the metal mass fraction is high enough that both the mean molecular weight and the adiabatic gradient should differ non-negligibly. The paper also reports convergence trouble in exactly that regime (early L, [M/H]=+1.5/+2.0). I would not call the central argument broken; the qualitative result that metallicity lowers the burning limits is almost certainly robust. But the specific numbers in Table 3 should be treated as provisional until someone runs cases with a metallicity-dependent adiabat or at least quantifies the shift. The SPHINX six-parameter fit for Teff>2400 is a secondary concern; it affects young massive tracks, not the 10-Gyr burning limits that carry the interesting claim. The FeH opacity fudge factor is empirical but used consistently with prior Sonora work and doesn't contaminate the evolution claims.

The citation pattern is heavy on the Sonora/PICASO family, but that's the lineage, not self-promotion; the benchmarks to external grids are there. Nobody is fitting the DBMM/HBMM to a target. This is a serious, reproducible piece of work. I'd send it to referees and push for one additional figure or table: how much the high-metallicity adiabat choice shifts the burning limits. Then accept.

Referee Report

3 major / 7 minor

Summary. This paper presents Sonora Flame Skimmer, a new grid of cloud-free 1D atmospheric and evolutionary models for substellar objects, spanning Teff = 50–2400 K, log(g) = 2.0–5.5, [M/H] = −1.0 to +2.0, C/O = 0.229–1.14, and Kzz = 10^2–10^9 cm^2/s for disequilibrium models. The atmospheric models are computed with PICASO, including updated opacities, metallicity-dependent chemical timescales, volatile condensation in disequilibrium models, and a self-consistent treatment of the CO2 'second quench'. The evolutionary models use Chachan et al. (2025) structure equations with the 10-bar entropy matching to the atmospheric grid, updated H/He and water EOS, and core prescriptions for low masses. Headline results include slower cooling at high metallicity, negligible Kzz impact on evolution, and metallicity-dependent deuterium- and hydrogen-burning minimum masses that drop to 5.39 and 45.03 MJ at [M/H] = +2.0 (Table 3). The full grid is publicly available on Zenodo.

Significance. If the grid and its trends hold, this is a substantial community resource for JWST and Roman interpretation of cold brown dwarfs and directly imaged temperate planets. The explicit public data release, self-consistent treatment of volatile condensation in disequilibrium chemistry, and careful benchmarking against Sonora Bobcat and Elf Owl are clear strengths. The most striking quantitative claims are the metallicity-dependent DBMM and HBMM values, which have physically plausible mechanisms (opacity-driven cooling delay and altered interior entropy) and are qualitatively consistent with earlier work. However, the paper itself acknowledges a load-bearing simplification in the radiative-convective solver at the highest metallicities, and the quantitative impact of that simplification on the headline burning-limit values is not assessed. The SPHINX-based boundary extension also introduces unquantified extrapolation uncertainty for young massive tracks, though this is less central to the 10-Gyr burning limits.

major comments (3)

[Section 4.1] The paper states that the PICASO RCE solver computes the convective adiabatic lapse rate assuming a pure H/He mixture with solar abundances even for models up to [M/H] = +2.0, and that deviations from a non-solar H/He adiabat may alter thermal structure and convective-zone locations. Since the 10-bar entropy boundary from these P-T profiles directly feeds the evolutionary tracks, the Table 3 values for DBMM (5.39 MJ) and HBMM (45.03 MJ) at [M/H] = +2.0 inherit this uncertainty. This is not a cosmetic issue: at 100x solar metallicity the mean molecular weight and adiabatic gradient differ materially from the solar H/He value, and the paper reports convergence difficulties precisely in this regime. I request a quantitative sensitivity test: either recompute the [M/H] = +1.5 and +2.0 P-T profiles (or a representative subset) with a metal-dependent adiabat, or provide an order-of-magnitude estimate of the resulting change in the 10-bar entropy and in the derived DBMM/HBMM. Without such a bound, the extreme-metallicity burning-limit values should be presented as provisional, and the central claim of 'strikingly low' HBMM needs qualification.
[Appendix B] The parametric fit to SPHINX models is calibrated over log(g) = 3–5.5 and [M/H] = −0.5 to +0.5 but is then used to extend the boundary condition to [M/H] = +2.0 and to low gravities. The paper notes that this chiefly affects young massive tracks, but the HBMM is initially approached by massive tracks that pass through Teff > 2400 K at early ages. The sensitivity of the derived HBMM at high metallicity to reasonable variations in this extrapolation (e.g., clipping instead of extrapolating) should be quantified, or the affected mass/age region should be excluded from the headline claims. As written, the uncertainty in this boundary condition is acknowledged but not propagated into the reported burning-limit values.
[Section 3.3, Table 3] The DBMM comparison to Sonora Diamondback at [M/H] = +0.5 is described as 'increases by 0.12 MJ relative to Sonora Diamondback', yet the surrounding text also reports a 0.05 MJ offset at solar metallicity. Please clarify whether these offsets are computed at the same DBMM definition (50% vs 90% deuterium depletion) and the same age criterion, and whether the Diamondback comparison uses the same core-mass and EOS assumptions. A mismatch in these definitions could make the differences appear smaller or larger than physically meaningful.

minor comments (7)

[Abstract] The phrase '10x sub-solar to 100x super-solar' is ambiguous; use '0.1x solar to 100x solar' or '10x sub-solar' is unclear.
[Section 4.1] The sentence 'deviations from a non-solar H/He adiabatic lapse rate' is confusing; likely intended is 'deviations from a solar H/He adiabat' or 'deviations arising from non-solar H/He composition'. Please reword.
[Section 2.1.1] The text says 'we adopt the same constant Kzz values of 10^2, 10^4, 10^7, 10^8, and 10^9', but the list is missing 10^6; Table 1 lists log(Kzz) = 2, 4, 7, 8, 9. This is consistent with Elf Owl but should be stated exactly once without the incomplete enumeration.
[Figure 3] The panel labels 'Flame Skimmer (Quench + Rainout)' and 'Elf Owl (Quench + Constant)' are clear, but the dashed lines in the left panel are condensation curves while the right panel uses dashed lines for Elf Owl; please ensure the legend distinguishes the two uses.
[Section 3.1] The text says 'the equilibrium model having a deeper convective zone compared to the disequilibrium model' for the 1300 K case; Figure 4 appears to show this for the middle panel, but the left panel is not labeled with a marker. Please specify which panel is being discussed.
[Appendix A] In the appendix text, the phrase 'reproduces the Sonora Elf Owl P–T profiles' is followed by 'differences emerge primarily at the lowest temperatures' - please make the degree of agreement explicit in the caption of Figure 21 as well, since the shaded regions suggest small but nonzero deviations at several temperatures.
[References] The manuscript cites several 'submitted' and 'in prep' works (e.g., Miles et al., Kothari et al., Strampelli et al.) in the introduction and Section 4.3. While acceptable for context, the central claims should not rely on unpublished results; the DBMM/HBMM comparisons use published grids, which is good.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the DBMM/HBMM values are emergent outputs of a model grid benchmarked against external grids, not fitted targets.

full rationale

The paper's central claims—the expanded Sonora Flame Skimmer grid and the metallicity-dependent deuterium- and hydrogen-burning minimum masses in Table 3—are computed by forward modeling, not by fitting to those target values. The atmospheric boundary conditions are obtained from PICASO RCE calculations with specified opacities and chemistry; the evolutionary tracks and burning limits emerge from integrating the structure equations with the Chabrier & Debras (2021) H/He EOS, the Mazevet et al. (2019) water EOS, and nuclear burning. No parameter in the paper is tuned to reproduce DBMM = 5.39 MJ or HBMM = 45.03 MJ. The SPHINX parametric extension in Appendix B is calibrated to an independent grid (Davis et al. 2025) and affects only young, high-Te initial conditions; it does not encode the 10-Gyr burning limits. The paper's own Section 4.1 limitation—that the RCE solver assumes a pure H/He solar-abundance adiabat even at [M/H] = +2.0—is an acknowledged modeling assumption and a legitimate correctness risk for the high-metallicity Table 3 values, but it is not circular: the assumption is not derived from the burning limits, nor are the burning limits used to justify the assumption. The empirical FeH H-band opacity reduction and the removal of PH3 are transparent calibrations or exclusions based on external observations; they are not presented as predictions of those observations. Heavy self-citation (Sonora Bobcat, Elf Owl, Diamondback, PICASO, Zahnle & Marley, Chachan et al.) is present but functions as model infrastructure and prior calibration, and the paper includes external benchmark comparisons against Sonora Bobcat, Sonora Elf Owl, Saumon & Marley (2008), and SPHINX grids. These benchmarks provide independent checks rather than circular support. Overall, no step in the derivation chain reduces to its own input by construction.

Assumptions & free parameters 3 free parameters · 7 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The grid's central outputs rest on standard substellar atmosphere and interior modeling assumptions. The genuinely free parameters are the inherited FeH empirical factor and the SPHINX boundary fit, plus adopted core masses. No parameters are fitted to the headline DBMM/HBMM values; those are outputs. The main unverified modeling choice is the pure H/He convective adiabat applied at extreme metallicity.

free parameters (3)

FeH H-band opacity reduction factor = 3
Reduces FeH opacity near 1.6 microns by a factor of three to better reproduce observed L dwarf spectra (Section 2.1). This is a hand-tuned, observationally calibrated correction inherited from earlier Sonora models.
SPHINX boundary extension parameters a, b, c, d, e, f = a=0.9399, b=-0.0833, c=3.619, d=3.669, e=2.962, f=0.0601
Six free parameters fitted to SPHINX models to extend the T10-Teff boundary condition above Teff = 2400 K (Appendix B). This fit drives the early evolution of massive objects.
Core masses for low-mass evolution tracks = 12 M_Earth for <20 M_Earth; 15 M_Earth for 20 M_Earth to 3 M_J
Adopted from empirical giant-planet mass-radius constraints (Chachan et al. 2025), not fitted to the present grid; affects radii and cooling of sub-Jovian objects.

assumptions (7)

domain assumption Convective regions follow a pure H/He solar-composition adiabatic lapse rate even at [M/H]=+2.0
Invoked in Section 4.1 for PICASO RCE solver. The paper flags that non-solar H/He adiabats may alter metal-rich thermal structures.
domain assumption Atmosphere and interior are matched by requiring equal specific entropy at 10 bar; interior is homogeneous and adiabatic
Section 2.2 describes the evolution framework after Chachan et al. (2025). The cooling rate is set by the atmospheric emergent flux at fixed interior entropy.
domain assumption Quench approximation holds: abundances are held constant above the quench point, with metallicity-dependent timescales from Zahnle and Marley (2014)
Equations (2)-(3) and Figure 1. This is the standard disequilibrium chemistry treatment, and the CO2 second quench relies on it.
domain assumption Volatile species H2O, NH3, CH4 condense at saturation vapor pressure but contribute no cloud opacity; gas-phase depletion only
Section 2.1.1 states condensation removes gas-phase volatiles without including cloud opacity. This is a deliberate modeling choice that affects the coldest spectra.
domain assumption H2 collision-induced absorption assumes normal (3:1) ortho-to-para ratio rather than equilibrium H2
Section 2.1 notes this choice is most important in cold atmospheres such as Uranus and affects the coldest grid models.
domain assumption SPHINX models provide a valid basis to extrapolate the atmospheric boundary condition above Teff = 2400 K
Appendix B fits the SPHINX T10-Teff relation to initialize high-mass, early-age evolution tracks. The fit is used beyond the SPHINX log(g) and metallicity ranges.
domain assumption Water EOS (Mazevet et al. 2019) and H-He EOS (Chabrier and Debras 2021) combine as an ideal mixture for metals
Section 2.2 states metals are represented by water and the water and H-He EOS are combined assuming an ideal mixture; this replaces the SCvH EOS used in Bobcat.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of The Sonora Substellar Atmosphere Models. VII. Flame Skimmer: Cloud-free Atmospheric and Evolutionary Models for the Coldest Substellar Objects." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/RURPTE5W

@misc{pith2026260806454,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: The Sonora Substellar Atmosphere Models. VII. Flame Skimmer: Cloud-free Atmospheric and Evolutionary Models for the Coldest Substellar Objects},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/RURPTE5W}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2608.06454}
}

abstract

JWST has provided unprecedented access to ultra-cool brown dwarfs and has pushed the boundaries of directly imaging temperate giant planets. As we continue to push toward detecting sub-Saturn and Neptune-like planets, it is crucial to develop atmospheric and evolutionary models that better capture the complexity and diversity of planetary atmospheres similar to the gas and ice giants in our Solar System. We present Sonora Flame Skimmer, the next suite of cloud-free 1D atmospheric and evolutionary models in chemical equilibrium and disequilibrium probing colder temperatures (down to 50 K), smaller objects (down to log(g) = 2), and a wide range of metallicities (10x sub-solar to 100x super-solar) and C/O ratios (solar to 2.5x solar). Beyond expanding the physical parameter space of previous Sonora models, we update the opacities and evolutionary model framework from Sonora Bobcat, as well as the chemical treatment of volatiles (H$_2$O, CH$_4$, NH$_3$) and carbon species such as CO$_2$ from Sonora Elf Owl. For the evolution of these substellar objects, we find that high-metallicity atmospheres lead to slower cooling compared to solar metallicity, while the strength of vertical mixing ($K_{\rm zz}$) has a negligible impact on the evolutionary tracks. At the highest metallicity explored here (100$\times$ solar), the deuterium-burning and hydrogen-burning minimum masses fall to 5.39 and 45.03 $M_{\rm J}$, respectively. All the models presented here, including the atmospheric structure, chemical profiles, spectra, synthetic photometry, and evolutionary models, are publicly available.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2608.06454 by the authors.

**Figure 1.** Moving up in the atmosphere towards cooler temperatures and lower pressures, the reaction rates decrease and a transition occurs when τchem ≳ τmix. Above this level, vertical mixing outpaces chemical conversion, and the abundances become “quenched.” We define the quench point at this transition and hold the abundances constant above it. This is the prescription followed in both Sonora Cholla and Sonora Elf Owl. Our… view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Volume mixing ratios of CO2 in a 275 K object with log(g) = 4.5, [M/H] = +0.0, C/O = 0.458, and for disequilibrium models, Kzz = 109 . The profiles for Sonora Bobcat, Sonora Elf Owl, Sonora Elf Owl v2, and Sonora Flame Skimmer are shown in different colors. The updated CO2 kinetics in Sonora Flame Skimmer produce significantly higher CO2 abundances due to the second quench and it is important to calculate these self… view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Left: Solid lines show the pressure-temperature profiles of three objects at 50, 150, and 275 K with log(g) = 4.5, [M/H] = +0.0, C/O = 0.458, and Kzz = 107 . The dashed lines correspond to the condensation curves of CH4, NH3, and H2O from left to right. Right: volume mixing ratios of H2O, NH3, and CH4 in the 275 K object. Solid lines show the condensation of volatiles in Sonora Flame Skimmer, compared to the constan… view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (19 more)

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Pressure-temperature profiles of a sequence of Sonora Flame Skimmer objects with Teff = 150, 600, 1300, and 2200 K, log(g) = 4.5, and Kzz = 107 . Left: comparison of equilibrium (dashed) and disequilibrium (solid) chemistry models, showing only minor differences, with …

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: Cold spectral sequence of Sonora Flame Skimmer models for objects with Teff = 350-100 K, log(g) = 4.5, [M/H] = +0.0, C/O = 0.458, and Kzz = 107 . Sonora Elf Owl spectra (black) are shown for comparison at 300 and 350 K. Shaded regions highlight differences between the …

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: Spectral sequence for Sonora Flame Skimmer models spanning Teff = 2400-100 K with log(g) = 4.5, [M/H] = +0.0, C/O = 0.458, and Kzz = 107 . These are compared to metal-rich models with [M/H] = +2.0 (black). Shaded regions highlight differences between the spectra, where…

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: Radius as a function of time for different C/O ratios (columns) and three representative substellar masses, low mass (0.05 MJ), near the deuterium-burning limit (13.62 MJ), and high mass (80.66 MJ) (rows). Colors indicate atmospheric metallicity. Solid lines show equi…

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Mass–radius relation of substellar objects at different ages for four atmospheric metallicities, with C/O = 0.458. Higher metallicity shifts the onset of deuterium burning to earlier times and lower masses, producing larger radii at young ages and extending deuterium…

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: Evolution of brown dwarfs in Teff and surface gravity for different masses. Evolution proceeds from right to left along the thick black tracks, labeled by mass in Jupiter masses. Isochrones (blue dotted lines) span 10 Myr to 10 Gyr, with thicker lines marking 0.01, 0.1…

**Figure 11.** Figure 11: Thermal evolution models for the equilibrium Sonora Flame Skimmer grid for objects with masses similar to Neptune (blue), Saturn (green), and Jupiter (red). Different metallicities are shown from solar (solid) to 100× super-solar (dot-dashed). Jupiter is shown as a …

**Figure 10.** Figure 10: Thermal evolution models for the equilibrium Sonora Flame Skimmer grid comparing solar ([M/H] = +0.0; solid) and super-solar ([M/H] = +2.0; dashed) metallicity tracks in luminosity (top) and effective temperature (bottom) as a function of age. Higher metallicity slow…

**Figure 12.** Figure 12: Left: comparison of Sonora Bobcat (dashed) and Sonora Flame Skimmer (solid) evolutionary models for solar metallicity and solar C/O objects. Right: effect of adopting SPHINX models for the atmospheric boundary condition in the Sonora Bobcat models (dashed). The Sonora…

**Figure 13.** Figure 13: Diagnostic heat maps showing the fractional difference in effective temperature (∆Teff ) between modified Sonora Bobcat evolutionary models and the original Sonora Bobcat tracks as a function of mass and age. Each panel isolates the impact of a single model update: To…

**Figure 14.** Figure 14: Color–magnitude diagrams using MKO and WISE (W1, W2) filters, with a comparison sample drawn from the UltracoolSheet. Sonora Flame Skimmer disequilibrium tracks are shown for log(g) = 4.5, [M/H] = +0.0, and C/O = 0.458, with varying Kzz. Variations in vertical mixing …

**Figure 15.** Figure 15: Color–magnitude diagrams using MKO and WISE (W1, W2) filters, with a comparison sample drawn from the UltracoolSheet. Sonora Flame Skimmer disequilibrium tracks are shown for log(g) = 4.5, C/O = 0.458, and Kzz = 107 , with varying [M/H]. Increasing metallicity shifts …

**Figure 16.** Figure 16: Sonora Flame Skimmer equilibrium evolutionary tracks categorized by mass for planets (yellow), brown dwarfs (green), and stars (red). Directly imaged dynamical benchmark objects compiled in Li et al. (2026), along with ϵ Indi Ab (Sanghi et al. 2026a), are shown as bl…

**Figure 17.** Figure 17: Color–magnitude diagram showing a sample of brown dwarfs from Beiler et al. (2024a) (gray) alongside Sonora Flame Skimmer tracks at varying metallicities for log(g) = 4.5 and C/O = 0.458. WISE 0855 (red) and planetary-mass objects AF Lep b (brown), TWA-7 b (green), a…

**Figure 18.** Figure 18: Simulated Sonora Flame Skimmer spectra and synthetic photometry for two representative substellar objects observed with JWST. Left: a cold object with Teff = 300 K and log(g) = 4.5. Right: a warmer object with Teff = 800 K and log(g) = 4.5. On both sides, the top row …

**Figure 19.** Figure 19: Simulated Sonora Flame Skimmer spectra and synthetic photometry for two representative substellar objects observed with JWST. Top: a cold object with Teff = 300 K and log(g) = 4.5. Bottom: a warmer object with Teff = 800 K and log(g) = 4.5. For both objects, the top r…

**Figure 20.** Figure 20: Comparison of pressure–temperature profiles between Sonora Flame Skimmer (solid) and Sonora Bobcat (dashed) at Teff = 300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1900, and 2400 K. Columns correspond to different surface gravities (log(g) = 3.5, 4.5, 5.5), and rows to different metalli…

**Figure 21.** Figure 21: Comparison of pressure–temperature profiles between Sonora Flame Skimmer (solid) and Sonora Elf Owl (dashed) at Teff = 300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1900, and 2400 K. Columns correspond to different surface gravities (log(g) = 3.5, 4.5, 5.5), and rows to different metall…

**Figure 22.** Figure 22: Comparison of evolutionary tracks in Teff and log(g) space between Sonora Flame Skimmer (black) and Saumon & Marley (2008) (gray) models for solar metallicity atmospheres labeled by mass in Jupiter masses. Left: cloud-free (SM08 clear) models. Right: cloudy models wit…

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 15, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.

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