Coronal dimmings and what they tell us about solar and stellar coronal mass ejections

Angelos Vourlidas; Astrid M. Veronig; Avijeet Prasad; Barbara Thompson; Bernhard Kliem; Cooper Downs; Hugh S. Hudson; Hui Tian; Jiong Qiu; Karin Dissauer

REVIEW 3 major objections 4 minor 6 cited by

Coronal dimmings and what they tell us about solar and stellar coronal mass ejections

T0 review · 3 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-07 · deepseek-v4-flash

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗

Pith's one-line read Coronal dimmings are not a single phenomenon: their shapes, motions, and lifetimes trace which magnetic flux systems an erupting flux rope reconnects with, and the paper proposes a new classification built on those traces.

desk verdict A comprehensive review with a plausible but not yet reproducible new dimming taxonomy; the stress-test concern is real and lands on the central diagnostic claim. read the letter →

arxiv 2505.19228 v1 pith:AFWVA3TP submitted 2025-05-25 astro-ph.SR

Astrid M. Veronig , Karin Dissauer , Bernhard Kliem , Cooper Downs , Hugh S. Hudson , Meng Jin , Rachel Osten , Tatiana Podladchikova

show 5 more authors

Avijeet Prasad Jiong Qiu Barbara Thompson Hui Tian Angelos Vourlidas

This is my paper · ORCID

classification astro-ph.SR

keywords coronaldimmingsmassejectionsmagneticfluxropereconnectionsolarcoronaEUVimagingstellarCMEsrecovery

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

Coronal dimmings, the sudden darkening of the solar corona that accompanies coronal mass ejections, are usually treated as either core footprints of the erupting flux rope or as broad secondary dimmings. This review argues that this simple split hides the underlying physics. It proposes a new classification in which each dimming type corresponds to a specific magnetic flux system and reconnection process: stationary, shrinking, and moving flux-rope dimmings, strapping-flux dimmings, exterior dimmings, and open-flux dimmings. If the taxonomy holds, the spatio-temporal evolution of a dimming becomes a remote diagnostic of which magnetic fields are reconnecting, how much flux opens into interplanetary space, and how the corona recovers afterward. The taxonomy also gives a foundation for detecting and characterizing stellar coronal mass ejections from Sun-as-a-star observations.

What carries the argument

The central object is the erupting magnetic flux rope, a bundle of twisted, current-carrying magnetic field lines that carries the coronal mass ejection, interacting with four flux systems: the rope itself, the strapping flux that overlies and holds it down, closed exterior flux outside the immediate source region, and open flux that reaches into the heliosphere. The argument runs through the reconnection processes among these systems, strapping-strapping, rope-strapping, rope-exterior, and rope-open, each of which changes footprint connectivity and leaves a characteristic dimming morphology, motion, and recovery pattern. The proposed category names are the observational face of that machinery, tying image-domain features to reconnection physics.

What would settle it

A concrete test is to take a set of eruptions with clear twin core dimmings and in-situ magnetic cloud measurements at 1 AU: if the dimming-derived open flux routinely exceeds the magnetic cloud toroidal flux by well beyond the factor-of-two-to-three uncertainty the paper reports, the assumption that dimming footprints track the flux that actually opens would fail. Conversely, if a moving flux-rope dimming is found in an event where the flare ribbon hooks do not sweep through the original footprint, the rope-strapping mechanism assigned to that category would be contradicted.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The paper's central claim is that the old core-versus-secondary observational split should be replaced by a physics-driven categorization: dimmings are produced when an erupting magnetic flux rope expands and reconnects with the strapping flux that holds it down, with closed exterior flux, or with open flux, depleting plasma in the footprints of those systems. Each proposed category (stationary, shrinking, and moving flux-rope dimmings; strapping-flux dimmings; exterior dimmings; open-flux dimmings) maps to a specific reconnection mode: strapping-strapping, rope-strapping, rope-exterior, and rope-open. The taxonomy makes concrete diagnostic promises: flux measured in stationary flux-rope dimmings estimates the flux opened to the heliosphere, shrinking dimmings mark leg-leg reconnection and the re-closing of flux, moving dimmings trace the migration of the rope's footprints into overlying field, and open-flux dimmings pin down newly opened fields that can channel escaping energetic electrons.

Load-bearing premise

The categorization assumes that every CME source can be described as a coherent erupting flux rope and that observed dimming regions map unambiguously to the strapping, exterior, and open flux systems, so if an eruption lacks a coherent flux rope or if projection, thermal, or field-model ambiguities blur the mapping, events would be misclassified.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

If correct, dimming morphology can indicate whether a CME's flux rope formed before eruption or accreted additional flux during eruption through strapping-strapping reconnection.
Dimming flux measurements, combined with in-situ magnetic-cloud measurements at 1 AU, can constrain the opening flux and poloidal flux of the CME from the Sun's surface alone.
The recovery behavior of dimmings (shrinkage direction and timescale) distinguishes reconnection-mediated closure from coronal replenishment, and may reveal how the large-scale magnetic field relaxes after an eruption.
Open-flux dimmings may identify regions where flare-accelerated electrons escape into interplanetary space, offering a test of flare models that assume all energy release happens on closed field lines.
Sun-as-a-star detection of dimmings becomes a more credible stellar CME indicator when the taxonomy's distinctions are used to avoid false positives from confined flares and thermal dimmings.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

Beyond the paper: the taxonomy predicts that high-cadence, multi-viewpoint observations could time-tag each reconnection mode by the onset order of core dimming, strapping dimming, and exterior dimming, turning a schematic into a chronological observable.
Beyond the paper: if pre-eruption dimming rates scale with flux-rope twist and expansion speed, monitoring pre-eruption dimmings might give a forecast lead time for eruption onset as well as a way to constrain twist before liftoff.
Beyond the paper: machine-learning segmentation of dimmings trained on these physics-based categories would likely outperform traditional core-secondary labels in predicting CME mass, flux content, and interplanetary consequences.
Beyond the paper: on other stars, where spatially resolved flux systems are invisible, the taxonomy suggests that only integrated dimming signatures of open-flux and flux-rope origin are likely to be clean stellar CME diagnostics, so stellar CME mass estimates should first be calibrated using the solar Sun-as-a-star sample.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

The thing to know: this is a genuinely useful review of coronal dimmings, and the new taxonomy in Section 5 is a real step beyond the old core/secondary split. The paper is honest about its own limits, but the stress-test note is correct: the mapping from dimming morphology to flux systems is not currently reproducible. Section 5.6.1 shows the same extended dimming labeled strapping-flux or exterior depending on which PFSS resolution you run. The paper flags several assignments as tentative, so it is not hiding the problem, but that fragility undercuts the claim that dimmings can be read as direct diagnostics of specific reconnection processes without an objective assignment procedure.

What the paper does well: it organizes a large and scattered literature into a coherent narrative, with solid coverage of the statistical relations between dimmings and CME mass, speed, and flare properties; the recovery phase; pre-eruption dimmings; MHD simulations; and the stellar CME section. The taxonomy itself is internally consistent and firmly grounded in known reconnection models, and the many examples make it easy to see what the authors intend. They also credit the uncertainties in flux measurements and explicitly acknowledge that the whole framework assumes an erupting flux rope, which is the standard picture. That is fair.

The soft spots are proportional to the claim. The taxonomy is offered as a diagnostic tool, but there is no quantitative test and no algorithmic decision rule for assigning a dimming component to a category. A few categories, like shrinking flux-rope dimmings, rest on a handful of events. The circular dimming in Section 5.6.2 may be thermal, which illustrates that the category boundaries are not always clean. None of this is fatal for a review, but it does mean the taxonomy is a research roadmap rather than an established classification. The authors seem to know this.

Who gets value: anyone working on solar or stellar CME diagnostics, plus the space-weather crowd who use dimmings as a proxy. I would send this to peer review; a good referee should push for a section on how to make assignments reproducible, possibly a small multi-event validation or explicit decision criteria. As a review, it deserves referee time, and the taxonomy deserves to be tested rather than ignored.

Verdict: accept for review with revisions expected. The taxonomy should be framed as a testable hypothesis, not a finished diagnostic tool.

Referee Report

3 major / 4 minor

Summary. This paper is a comprehensive review of coronal dimmings associated with CMEs, covering their history, observational properties, detection methods, relationships to CMEs, flares and ICMEs, their recovery and pre-eruption phases, and their application to stellar CMEs. The new contribution beyond a review is a physics-driven categorization of dimmings (Section 5) based on the magnetic flux systems involved: flux-rope dimmings (stationary, shrinking, moving), strapping-flux dimmings, exterior dimmings, and open-flux dimmings. The paper claims that these categories map onto specific reconnection processes (strapping-strapping, rope-strapping, rope-exterior, rope-open) and that their spatio-temporal evolution can be used to diagnose CME triggering, flux-rope formation, magnetic connectivity, mass opening, and coronal recovery. The observational synthesis is grounded in many cited statistical and case studies, and the manuscript openly acknowledges several tentative or unresolved assignments.

Significance. This is the first dedicated review of coronal dimmings and provides an extensive, well-organized synthesis of multi-instrument observations (SOHO/EIT, STEREO/EUVI, SDO/AIA, SDO/EVE, Hinode/EIS) and their connections to CME, flare, and ICME measurements. The proposed taxonomy in Section 5 is a valuable conceptual step: it organizes the traditional core/secondary dimming dichotomy in terms of magnetic flux systems and reconnection processes, and it offers testable diagnostics (e.g., ribbon motion, dimming migration, ICME flux content) for each category. The paper is unusually honest in flagging its own limitations, such as the explicit tentative assignments in Section 5.6 and the unresolved circular dimming in Section 5.6.2. If the taxonomy can be made reproducible through an objective assignment procedure, it would provide a genuinely useful diagnostic framework for solar and stellar CME research. At present, however, the central claim that dimming morphology can be straightforwardly read as a signature of specific flux systems is not yet fully supported by the paper's own examples.

major comments (3)

[§5.6.1 and Fig. 45] The SOL2011-10-01 example is directly load-bearing for the taxonomy: the extended secondary dimming is classified as a strapping-flux dimming when field lines are computed with a low-resolution PFSS model, but a high-resolution PFSS computation roots part of the same flux in a different polarity (P2), which reclassifies that part as an exterior dimming. Because the taxonomy's diagnostic value rests on the ability to assign an observed dimming component to a specific flux system, and because this assignment is here shown to depend on a standard methodological choice, the paper needs to provide an objective, reproducible assignment procedure or substantially qualify the diagnostic claims in Section 5.7. Merely noting that a different model suggests a different classification is not sufficient for a taxonomy offered as a diagnostic tool.
[§5.6.2 and Fig. 47] Several assignments in Fig. 47 are explicitly marked as tentative (with asterisks), and the circular dimming is described as "not yet understood" with a possible thermal origin. This is a second indication that, for complex events, the category of a dimming component cannot be uniquely determined from the observations. The paper should state how often such ambiguity occurs in practice, and should either restrict the taxonomy's diagnostic claims to events where the flux-system assignment is unambiguous, or provide testable predictions (e.g., expected flare-ribbon geometry, dimming motion, or ICME flux content) that can validate the mapping in ambiguous cases.
[§5.3 and §3.4] The assertion that the majority of core dimmings belong to the moving flux-rope dimming category (11–17 of 19 events in Kahler and Hudson 2001) infers the underlying rope-strapping reconnection from the observed area contraction of the dimmings. The paper itself notes that the "precise conditions for this to occur remain to be clarified." This inference is load-bearing because it underlies the claim that dimming morphology maps onto specific reconnection processes; alternative explanations for the contraction (e.g., coronal reconfiguration not caused by rope-strapping reconnection) are not discussed. The paper should either test this mapping against simulation predictions, such as the characteristic ribbon- and dimming-motion signatures shown in Fig. 38, or clearly acknowledge the degree to which this part of the mapping is currently interpretive rather than established.

minor comments (4)

[Table of Contents] The Contents entry for Section 7 reads "F rom the Sun to stars"; "F rom" should be "From".
[Fig. 1 caption] The caption contains "recognizeable" and "esentially"; these should be "recognizable" and "essentially".
[Section 2] The citation "Wlerick et al" should be "Wlérick et al" with the proper accent; several other names in the text (e.g., Török, Lörinčík) appear with doubled or misplaced umlauts and accents, likely from LaTeX rendering, and should be checked in the final version.
[Section 5] The paper assumes that "in agreement with all current eruption models, we consider the erupting flux to take the structure of a flux rope." This assumption is not critically examined, and the taxonomy inherits it. A brief discussion of how the categorization would apply to events where the ejecta may not be a coherent flux rope (e.g., stealth CMEs or confined eruptions) would make the scope of the taxonomy clearer.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 1.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the new dimming taxonomy is an interpretive classification, and the cited prior work is independent observational evidence rather than fitted input.

full rationale

This is a review paper whose only genuinely new contribution is the Section 5 categorization of dimmings by magnetic flux systems. That categorization is introduced by explicit definition ('In our classification, we refer to these dimmings as stationary flux-rope dimmings') rather than derived from fitted parameters, and its diagnostic statements are framed as proposals supported by observations and simulations. The authors cite their own earlier statistical studies (e.g., Dissauer et al. 2018b, 2019; Veronig et al. 2019, 2021), but those are independent published observational results with stated methods and data, not parameters fitted to the new taxonomy, so they do not make the taxonomy circular. The PFSS-resolution dependence noted in Sect. 5.6.1 ('One must be aware, however, that a different methodology of the computation or a different resolution of the magnetogram can yield a different solution') is an acknowledged reproducibility limitation of category assignment, not a case of the category being defined by the computation. No equation in the paper reduces a predicted quantity to a fitted input, and the central claim is not equivalent to its inputs by construction. The appropriate finding is therefore no significant circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 0 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The review's new taxonomy is qualitative and rests on standard MHD flux-rope eruption theory and on the interpretation of dimming as density depletion. No new free parameters are introduced in the central claim. The illustrative expansion model in Sect 3.5 uses literature-based parameters, but these do not feed the taxonomy.

assumptions (4)

domain assumption The erupting flux has the structure of a flux rope, regardless of whether it exists pre-eruption or forms during eruption.
Invoked in Sect 5 to define the flux systems and categories; if false for a subset of CMEs, the taxonomy would not apply.
domain assumption Dimming is predominantly caused by density depletion (plasma evacuation) rather than temperature change.
Established by multi-filter and DEM observations cited in Sect 3.3; the whole diagnostic framework builds on this.
domain assumption The reconnection processes identified in simulations can be inferred from observed dimming and ribbon evolution.
The categorization in Sect 5 relies on linking observed dimming morphology to MHD processes such as strapping-strapping, rope-strapping, rope-exterior, and rope-open reconnection.
domain assumption Potential-field and PFSS models reliably distinguish strapping flux from exterior flux.
Used in Sect 5.6.1 where two resolutions give different assignments; the categorization depends on such field models.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Coronal dimmings and what they tell us about solar and stellar coronal mass ejections." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/AFWVA3TP

@misc{pith2026250519228,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Coronal dimmings and what they tell us about solar and stellar coronal mass ejections},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/AFWVA3TP}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2505.19228}
}

read the original abstract

Coronal dimmings associated with coronal mass ejections (CME) from the Sun have gained much attention since the late 1990s when they were first observed in high-cadence imagery of the SOHO/EIT and Yohkoh/SXT instruments. They appear as localized sudden decreases of the coronal emission at extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and soft X-ray (SXR) wavelengths, that evolve impulsively during the lift-off and early expansion phase of a CME. Coronal dimmings have been interpreted as "footprints" of the erupting flux rope and also as indicators of the coronal mass loss by CMEs. However, these are only some aspects of coronal dimmings and how they relate to the overall CME/flare process. The goal of this review is to summarize our current understanding and observational findings on coronal dimmings, how they relate to CME simulations, and to discuss how they can be used to provide us with a deeper insight and diagnostics of the triggering of CMEs, the magnetic connectivities and coronal reconfigurations due to the CME as well as the replenishment of the corona after an eruption. In addition, we go beyond a pure review by introducing a new, physics-driven categorization of coronal dimmings based on the magnetic flux systems involved in the eruption process. Finally, we discuss the recent progress in studying coronal dimmings on solar-like and late-type stars, and to use them as a diagnostics for stellar coronal mass ejections and their properties.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2505.19228 by the authors.

**Figure 3.** On the left, we plot CME speed in a histogram form with dimming-associated events in black and non-dimmings in white. The histograms are very similar for slow events, but non-dimming events cut off at approximately 800 km s−1, while dimming-associated events have a much longer tail. On the right, we again plot a histogram of CME speed, but with the black representing all events. Here we can see how the non-dimming-a… view at source ↗

**Figure 4.** Dimming vs. flare longitude (left) and latitude (right). Values are similar, as expected. non-dimming events in white. Here we see that the shape of the two distributions is quite similar with non-dimming-associated events having a truncated tail. In order to test if dimming and non-dimming events come from two different populations, we calculate the Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic, which provides a measurement of whet… view at source ↗

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Forward citations

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