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Spatially-resolved spectro-photometric SED Modeling of NGC 253's Central Molecular Zone I. Studying the star formation in extragalactic giant molecular clouds

T0 review · 4 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-08-10 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read This paper builds the first spatially-resolved SEDs of an extragalactic source—ten giant clouds in NGC 253 at 51-pc resolution—and uses them to show the inner clouds double the outer clouds in SFR, stellar mass, and dust mass.

desk verdict First 51-pc panchromatic GMC SEDs in NGC 253 are a genuinely useful data product; the quantitative SFR/dust numbers rest on an extrapolated FIR bump, so treat the calibrations as provisional until FIR-resolved data arrive. read the letter →

arxiv 2501.15082 v2 pith:D6FKRZMT submitted 2025-01-25 astro-ph.GA

Pedro K. Humire , Subhrata Dey , Tommaso Ronconi , Victor H. Sasse , Roberto Cid Fernandes , Sergio Martín , Darko Donevski , Katarzyna Ma{l}ek
show 24 more authors
Juan A. Fernández-Ontiveros Yiqing Song Mahmoud Hamed Jeffrey G. Mangum Christian Henkel Víctor M. Rivilla Laura Colzi N. Harada Ricardo Demarco Arti Goyal David S. Meier Swayamtrupta Panda Ângela C. Krabbe Yaoting Yan Amanda R. Lopes K. Sakamoto S. Muller K. Tanaka Y. Yoshimura K. Nakanishi Antonio Kanaan Tiago Ribeiro William Schoenell Claudia Mendes de Oliveira
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GA
keywords galaxies:starburstindividual:NGC253starformationISMspectralenergydistributiongiantmolecularcloudsratetracersradiocontinuum
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The authors assemble archival observations of NGC 253's central molecular zone from the near-ultraviolet to centimeter wavelengths and fit a spectral energy distribution (SED) for ten giant molecular clouds in 3-arcsecond (51 pc) apertures, the first time such a wide, spatially-resolved SED has been built for an extragalactic source. They find that the four clouds in the nucleus have star formation rates, stellar masses, and dust masses about twice those of the six outer clouds, showing the central molecular zone is not a uniform star-forming medium. They also identify the 33 GHz radio continuum, radio recombination lines, total infrared luminosity (8–1000 µm), and 60 µm emission as the most reliable single-band star formation rate tracers at GMC scales. If correct, this makes nearby starburst clouds the first place where radio and infrared star formation calibrations can be tested at the scale of individual giant molecular clouds.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is a set of ten 3-arcsecond apertures (51 pc at 3.5 Mpc) placed on the ALMA-identified GMCs of NGC 253, combined so that every aperture carries photometry from near-UV to 20 cm—six decades in frequency. The argument runs through a physically self-consistent SED model whose star formation history simultaneously determines stellar population emission, nebular lines and free-free, two dust components (an embedded birth-cloud phase and a diffuse phase), and synchrotron emission. That single-history structure is what lets the observed radio and submillimeter points constrain the dust temperature and hence the dust mass and SFR, and what makes the comparison of monochromatic tracers to a full panchromatic fit meaningful.

What would settle it

The direct falsifier is the 9-arcsecond Herschel SED of the nuclear region (GMCs 4–6): if fitting that SED with the same two-component dust model returns a diffuse-dust temperature outside the 63–85 K range quoted by the paper, then the 3-arcsecond FIR bump was extrapolated incorrectly and the dust masses and SFRs built on it would shift.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

On the paper's own terms, the discovery is that the panchromatic spectral energy distribution of a starburst can be assembled at the scale of a single giant molecular cloud: ten GMCs in NGC 253's central molecular zone are each measured from near-UV (0.36 µm) to centimeter (20 cm) wavelengths in a common 3 arcsecond (51 pc) aperture, spanning six decades in frequency. Fitting these SEDs with a self-consistent model of stellar populations, nebular emission, two dust components, and synchrotron radiation, the paper finds that the four nuclear GMCs (3–6) have star formation rates of 0.087–0.65 M_sun $yr^{-1}$, stellar masses of 3.7–7.1 × $10^{8}$ M_sun, and dust masses of 1.6–5.8 × $10^{5}$ M_sun, all roughly double those of the six outer GMCs. It also finds that the 33 GHz continuum, radio recombination lines, total 8–1000 µm luminosity, and 60 µm emission give the tightest, near-unity relations with the SFR from the full SED, so centimeter photometry works as an SFR tracer at GMC scales.

Load-bearing premise

The results assume each 51-parsec aperture is one isolated evolving cloud, and that the far-infrared dust bump—where the dust mass and SFR estimates mainly live—can be extrapolated without direct FIR observations at that resolution.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • H-alpha-derived SFRs are systematically out of step with the full-SED SFRs in this obscured environment, so dust-insensitive radio tracers are preferable inside central molecular zones.
  • The 33 GHz continuum can be used as a pencil-beam SFR tracer at roughly 50 pc scales in starbursts, extending galaxy-wide calibrations down by two orders of magnitude in spatial scale.
  • The central molecular zone of NGC 253 is genuinely heterogeneous: the four inner clouds dominate cloud-scale star formation and dust mass, while outer clouds are colder and more quiescent.
  • Line-ratio diagnostic diagrams place the clouds in the composite zone, and the paper's interpretation is that this comes from shocks in the starburst, with an AGN contributing at most 7.5% of the panchromatic luminosity.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Editorial inference: because the four nuclear clouds all share the same far-infrared extrapolation, the inner-versus-outer contrast is probably more robust than the absolute dust masses and SFRs; a systematic error in the FIR bump would move all inner clouds together.
  • Editorial inference: the tight 33 GHz–SFR relation at 50 pc scales suggests the same calibration could be pushed to the ~2 pc scales of super star clusters wherever ALMA and VLA resolution allow, directly testing whether radio SFR tracers remain linear below 50 pc.
  • Editorial inference: the archival-assembly method used here could be applied to other nearby starbursts (for example M 82) without waiting for new FIR facilities, although the FIR extrapolation caveat would carry over.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

4 major / 4 minor

Summary. The paper assembles archival photometry from S-PLUS, HST, VLT/NaCo and VISIR, Spitzer/IRAC, ALMA/ALCHEMI, and VLA/EVLA to construct 3″-diameter SEDs for ten GMCs in NGC 253's central molecular zone. The authors fit these SEDs with GalaPy as the primary code and CIGALE as a cross-check, supplement the analysis with starlight fits to MUSE plus S-PLUS data, and derive SFRs, stellar and dust masses, ages, and attenuations. They report that central GMCs 3–6 have roughly double the stellar masses, dust masses, and SFRs of external GMCs, and they test monochromatic SFR tracers, finding that 33 GHz radio continuum, radio recombination lines, L_IR, and 60 um emission correlate best with the SED-derived SFRs. A 9″ Herschel/PACS fit is used to support the far-infrared extrapolation, with the paper explicitly acknowledging the absence of 3″ FIR photometry and the partial circularity of the IR tracer correlations.

Significance. If the relative internal/external trends survive better FIR constraints, this is a valuable step: it is one of the first attempts to model panchromatic SEDs at roughly 50 pc scales in an external starburst and to test radio and IR SFR tracers at GMC scales. The paper has several concrete strengths: the internal versus external trends are consistent across GalaPy and CIGALE; the radio-based SFR correlations are anchored in independent VLA/EVLA and H40alpha data; the authors are transparent about the FIR extrapolation in Sect. 5.1 and about the non-independence of the IR tracers in Sect. 4.3.3; and the 9″ PACS test is an honest attempt at external validation. The main scientific value lies in the relative comparison and in the radio tracer calibrations; the absolute dust masses and SFRs, and the ranking of IR tracers, need to be presented with stronger caveats or additional validation.

major comments (4)
  1. [§5.1, Table 2, Fig. E.1] The 3″ SEDs have no photometric points between 18.7 μm (VLT/Q, only for GMCs 3–7) and 0.93 mm (ALMA B7), so the FIR bump, L_IR, M_dust, and instantaneous SFRs in Tables 5 and B.1 are determined by GalaPy's two-greybody diffuse-dust model across an unobserved gap. The 9″ PACS fit in Appendix E covers a blended aperture centered on GMC 5 that includes GMCs 4–6; its T_DD = 68.8 K does not verify the individual 3″ temperatures (84.5, 67.9, and 63.3 K for GMCs 4, 5, and 6 in Table B.1), and GMCs 1, 2, 7–10 have no FIR constraint at all. A plausible shift of ~20 K in the FIR peak would substantially change L_IR, M_dust, and SFR, and the GalaPy versus CIGALE comparison already shows factor ~3.3 differences for GMC 5 (0.645 versus 0.196 M_sun/yr). The quantitative internal/external doubling claim therefore rests on a model extrapolation; please quantify the sensitivity of the derived M_dust and SFR values to the assumed FIR peak or explicitly reframe those numbers as model-dependent.
  2. [§4.3.3, Fig. 14] The correlations between SFR and L_24μm, L_60μm, L_100μm, and L_IR are not independent validations: both axes are read from the same GalaPy SED fits that provide the SFRs. The paper acknowledges this in Sect. 4.3.3, but the abstract and conclusions still list L_IR and 60 μm among the best SFR tracers without carrying that caveat forward. The radio correlations (Fig. 13) and the H40alpha comparison (Fig. 12) use independent data and do support the radio-tracer conclusion; the IR-tracer ranking should be explicitly presented as an internal consistency check, or validated with independent FIR photometry, before being quoted as a calibration result.
  3. [§3.1.1, Table 3] The in-situ model with N_MC = 1 treats each 3″ aperture as an isolated, single molecular cloud with self-consistently evolving gas and dust. In the crowded and highly inclined CMZ of NGC 253 this is a strong assumption: the 9″ PACS aperture itself blends GMCs 4–6, and the 3″ apertures sit on a substantial stellar and gas background. Because the SFH, stellar age, and instantaneous SFR all follow from the isolated-system assumption, the paper should provide some test of this assumption, for example by fitting an annulus as background, shifting the aperture center by the reported coordinate differences, or varying N_MC. At minimum, the conclusions should state explicitly which results remain unchanged if the isolated-cloud assumption is relaxed.
  4. [Tables 5/6, Eq. (6)] The 33 GHz SFR calibration in Eq. (6) is anchored to GalaPy's instantaneous SFR. Since GalaPy and CIGALE differ by factors up to ~3.3 for the same GMC, the calibration inherits the full model systematics of the chosen SED code even though the correlation itself is tight. The H40alpha comparison in Sect. 4.3.2 provides some support, but it covers only GMCs 4–6 and the comparison is made on aperture-matched regions with their own assumptions. Please quote the radio calibration with an explicit systematic error term reflecting the SED-code spread, and state that the calibration is relative to the GalaPy SFR scale.
minor comments (4)
  1. [Abstract, §1] The claim of 'six decades in frequency' should be checked: 3,563 Å to 20 cm is log10(0.2/3.563e-7) ≈ 5.75 decades, and at 3″ there are no data between 18.7 μm and 0.93 mm; the phrase 'panchromatic' should be qualified accordingly.
  2. [Table 4] The notation for GMC-specific parameter ranges, e.g., 'GMC2: ([6.0, 12.0])', is hard to read because the same numeric interval also appears in the 'Common parameter ranges' column; please clarify that all entries are in log10 units and specify the units for age, sfh.tau_star, and ism.tau_esc.
  3. [§4.2.2, Fig. 9] The trend between |ΔA_V| and stellar age uses Balmer-decrement attenuations whose uncertainties are as large as roughly 90% (Table 8); the regression should display these uncertainties on the y-axis and the interpretation should be phrased accordingly.
  4. [Fig. 6] The labels r.l.f. and r.m.f. are not defined in the text or caption; please define 'remaining light fraction' and 'remaining mass fraction' where they first appear.

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged · score 4.0 of 10

IR-tracer calibration is partly self-referential: the L_IR, 60, 100, and 24 micron luminosities come from the same GalaPy fit that yields the SFRs, so the ranking of IR SFR tracers is partly an internal-consistency check; radio and H40alpha comparisons remain independent.

  1. fitted input called prediction [Sect. 4.3.3, Fig. 14 (IR tracers); see also Sect. 5.1]
    "Accounting for IR points as SFR tracers, as can be seen in Fig. 14, we generally find a comparable dispersion and quality of fit (in terms of mean R) to that obtained with radio bands. However, it is important to note that, since these IR data points are directly derived from the GalaPy SED fitting employed to estimate the SFR, they are not entirely independent of the latter."

    The SFR values on the y-axis of Fig. 14 are outputs of GalaPy, and the IR luminosities on the x-axis (L_24, L_60, L_100, and integrated L_IR) are read off the same best-fit GalaPy model. Regressing one set of model outputs against another and then ranking 'best SFR tracers' therefore measures model self-consistency more than independent tracer performance. The authors explicitly concede the non-independence, so the circularity is acknowledged rather than concealed; it affects the IR part of the tracer ranking, not the radio/RRL results.

full rationale

The central derivation is largely self-contained: the GalaPy and CIGALE SED fits are driven by archival photometry, the starlight fits use MUSE+S-PLUS data, and the internal/external GMC dichotomy is additionally supported by independent ALCHEMI chemistry, H40alpha RRLs, and radio continuum measurements. There is no load-bearing self-citation chain or imported uniqueness theorem: GalaPy is an open-source code with its own published benchmarks, and the ALCHEMI references supply independent observational constraints. The one genuine circular element is the IR tracer calibration (Sect. 4.3.3): because L_IR, L_60, L_100, and L_24 are model-derived luminosities from the same GalaPy fits that produce the SFRs, the tight correlations in Fig. 14 are partly internal consistency. The paper states this explicitly, which is why this is scored as partial circularity rather than as a concealed tautology. The radio-based correlations and the H40alpha comparison are independent enough to keep the main internal-versus-external star-formation result well supported. Model systematics (e.g., GalaPy vs CIGALE factor-of-several SFR differences) are a correctness/robustness concern, not a circularity one.

Assumptions & free parameters 9 free parameters · 7 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central results inherit a large set of model choices from GalaPy's In-Situ SFH and dust prescriptions, plus an assumed distance and IMF; the most consequential unverified input is the far-infrared extrapolation at 3 arcsecond resolution.

free parameters (9)
  • GalaPy age = log10(yr) 7.33-9.95 across GMCs
    Stellar population age fitted per GMC; directly sets the SFR and stellar mass through the SFH.
  • sfh.tau_star = log10(yr) 7.48-10.88
    Characteristic star-formation timescale in the In-Situ SFH; controls the SFH shape and derived SFR.
  • sfh.psi_max = log10(Msun/yr) -1.92 to 1.15
    Peak SFR in the SFH; dominant driver of the derived instantaneous SFR.
  • ism.R_MC = log10(pc) 0.54-1.60
    Molecular cloud radius; ranges adjusted per GMC, capped for GMCs 2 and 8 using Leroy et al. (2015) radii.
  • ism.Rdust = log10(pc) 1.08-1.64
    Diffuse dust radius; shapes the FIR dust emission and affects dust mass.
  • ism.f_PAH = 0.03-0.32
    PAH fraction of diffuse dust; affects mid-IR emission and dust mass.
  • ism.f_MC = 0.01-0.43
    Molecular cloud mass fraction in the ISM; affects attenuation and the balance of dust components.
  • ism.tau_esc = log10(yr) 6.18-9.22
    Escape time of stars from their birth cloud; sets the split between young and old attenuation.
  • noise.f_cal = -2.25 to -0.55
    Calibration uncertainty free parameter that relaxes photometric constraints, allowing up to 30% uncertainty in the fits.
assumptions (7)
  • domain assumption The In-Situ SFH model (Lapi et al. 2018) is valid for an isolated GMC
    GalaPy's default SFH assumes a closed-box evolution of gas, dust, and metallicity, applied to each 3'' aperture (Sect. 3.1.1).
  • domain assumption Each 3'' aperture is an isolated system with N_MC=1
    Sect. 3.1.3 sets the total number of molecular clouds to 1, assuming isolated GMCs and ignoring cross-cloud contamination, inflow, and outflow.
  • domain assumption Chabrier IMF
    Used by GalaPy and starlight; a different IMF would rescale stellar masses and SFRs.
  • domain assumption AGN contribution is negligible
    GalaPy has no AGN module; the paper argues from CIGALE f_AGN <= 7.5% and prior literature that AGN is unimportant, but this is an input assumption for the primary fits.
  • ad hoc to paper The FIR bump at 3'' is captured by model extrapolation
    No FIR photometry exists at 3''; the dust peak is extrapolated from MIR and sub-mm data, validated only by 9'' Herschel PACS for the GMC 5 region (Sect. 5.1, Appendix E).
  • domain assumption Distance to NGC 253 is 3.5 Mpc
    All luminosities and SFRs scale as distance squared; the adopted literature distance is not independently tested.
  • domain assumption LTE and optically thin sulfur isotopologue modeling
    Appendix C assumes LTE single-component fits to 13CS and 13C34S to derive 32S/34S and hence metallicity and age; the fit is degenerate and the range is truncated by an external metallicity prior.

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Pith. "Pith review of Spatially-resolved spectro-photometric SED Modeling of NGC 253's Central Molecular Zone I. Studying the star formation in extragalactic giant molecular clouds." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/D6FKRZMT

@misc{pith2026250115082,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Spatially-resolved spectro-photometric SED Modeling of NGC 253's Central Molecular Zone I. Studying the star formation in extragalactic giant molecular clouds},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/D6FKRZMT}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2501.15082}
}
abstract

Studying the interstellar medium in nearby starbursts is essential for understanding the physical mechanisms driving these objects, thought to resemble young star-forming galaxies. This study aims to analyze the physical properties of the first spatially-resolved multi-wavelength SED of an extragalactic source, spanning six decades in frequency (from near-UV to cm wavelengths) at an angular resolution of 3$^{\prime\prime}$ (51 pc at the distance of NGC,253). We focus on the central molecular zone (CMZ) of NGC,253, which contains giant molecular clouds (GMCs) responsible for half of the galaxy's star formation. We use archival data, spanning optical to centimeter wavelengths, to compute SEDs with the GalaPy and CIGALE codes for validation, and analyze stellar optical spectra with the \textsc{starlight} code. Our results show significant differences between central and external GMCs in terms of stellar and dust masses, star formation rates (SFRs), and bolometric luminosities. We identify the best SFR tracers as radio continuum bands at 33 GHz, radio recombination lines, and the total infrared luminosity (L$_{\rm IR}$; 8-1000$\mu$m), as well as 60$\mu$m IR emission. BPT and WHAN diagrams indicate shock signatures in NGC~253's nuclear region, associating it with AGN/star-forming hybrids, though the AGN fraction is negligible ($\leq$7.5%). Our findings show significant heterogeneity in the CMZ, with central GMCs exhibiting higher densities, SFRs, and dust masses compared to external GMCs. We confirm that certain centimeter photometric bands can reliably estimate global SFR at GMC scales.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2501.15082 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Work overview. From left to right and top to bottom, the (labeled) panels show: a) The S-PLUS footprint scan over the southern hemisphere, where each light blue square represents a single S-PLUS observation (FoV of 1.4 × 1.4 deg2 ). b) a zoom-in into the S-PLUS field where NGC 253 is located is called field −s20s09, where an inset provides a closer view into the nuclear regions of this galaxy. Inside the latter inse… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Integrated intensity maps of NGC 253’s CMZ showing its 10 giant molecular clouds (GMCs) at the central frequencies of ALMA Bands 3, 4, 6, and 7 (i.e., at 100, 144, 243, and 324 GHz). Data from ALMA Band 5 is not shown as its central frequency of 187 GHz is strongly affected by telluric absorption from a water line at ∼183 GHz, as can be inferred from [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. SED models obtained with the GalaPy software for the ten GMCs studied in this work, each of them covering a diameter of 3′′ (∼50 pc; see Sect. 3.1). Points correspond to the photometric measurements obtained from the sample (Sects 2 and 4.1), while solid lines correspond to the unattenuated stellar emission (green), molecular cloud component (MC, purple), stellar emission considering extinction (extinct, red), and d… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (10 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Stellar and dust masses of the analyzed GMCs derived by GalaPy (see Subsect. 4.1.1). Their different ranges are indicated in the central labels. In the current analysis, the differentiation between internal and external GMCs is further supported by variations in star f…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: The starlight fits (shown by blue lines) are applied to the MUSE spectra (represented in black, with yellow lines indicating masked data) along with S-PLUS photometry fits (depicted with black and red circles, depending on whether they were used in the fit, with red po…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: starlight and GalaPy star-formation histories for the GMCs studied in this work. starlight discriminates between light and mass contributions to the total emission, contribution mainly coming from recent (blue) and old (red) stellar populations, respectively. GalaPy (b…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: WHAN (left) and BPT (right) diagnostic diagrams (see Sect. 4.2.1) for the ten GMC studied using emission line ratios of the optical spectra from MUSE. We prefer the term “starburst+shocks” (SB+Shocks) over the commonly used “Composite” given the findings highlighted in…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Attenuation curves normalized at A(λ)/AV =1 when λ =5500Å over wavelength in the rest frame, as derived by GalaPy SED fittings. The A(λ) value at 5500Å is labeled in the legend of the left panel in linear scale and per GMC. This legend also indicates the color correspo…
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Relation between absolute attenuation differences, |∆ AV|, obtained from the Balmer decrement, A Balmer V , representing the gas attenuation, and the stellar attenuation obtained by consider￾ing the continuum emission from the near UV to the near IR by starlight. These…
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Star formation rate (SFR) of the inner regions of NGC 253’s CMZ. In the x-axis, the SFR is obtained from the H40α RRL (see Subsect. 4.3.2). In the y-axis, the SFR was ob￾tained from the Ka EVLA Band applying the best-fitting relation from our linear regression, presen…
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Star formation rate (SFR) of the inner regions of NGC 253’s CMZ as accounted from the H40α RRL. The orig￾inal ALCHEMI beam of 1′′ .6 is denoted in the bottom-left cor￾ner. Circles correspond to the photometric aperture (3′′diameter) used for the flux extraction and po…
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Star formation rate (SFR) from our SED fitting using GalaPy versus fluxes from our retrieved (E)VLA continuum images, using apertures of 3′′ in available GMCs (see [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p019_13.png]
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p019_14.png]

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Reference graph

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    2024

  4. [2014]

    Mass fraction of PAH qPAH 0.47, 1.77, 2.50, 3.19, 4.58, 5.26, 6.63, 7.32 Minimum radiation field Umin 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0, 2.5, 4, 8, 15 power law index of the radiation α 2 fraction illuminated from Umin to Umax γ 0.02, 0.06, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 active nucleus model; Skirtor (...

    2012

  5. [2015]

    e-folding time of the main stellar population model [Myr] τmain 300-5000 by a bin of 300 e-folding time of the late starburst population model [Myr] τburst 50-500 by a bin of 50 mass fraction of the late burst population fburst 0.01, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, 0.3, 0.6, 0.9 Age of the m...

    2000

  6. [2019]

    as it has also been used to distinguish between LTE and non-LTE emission, enabling the discovery of new maser transitions (Humire et al. 2024). While originally designed to process single spectra, the code can be adapted to handle data cubes (Harada et al

    2024

  7. [2023]

    Indeed, the strongest SiO(5–4)/HNCO(100,10− 90,9) ratios are observed at this position (Humire et al

    and strong shocks at high-J frequency transi- tions. Indeed, the strongest SiO(5–4)/HNCO(100,10− 90,9) ratios are observed at this position (Humire et al. 2022). The whole pic- ture may also be that weak and strong shocks are actually mixed over the entire CMZ (Bao et al. 2024...

    2022

Pith tools

Reviewed August 10, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.