The changing impact of radio jets as they evolve: The view from the cold gas

Aneta Siemiginowska; Clive Tadhunter; Ewan O'Sullivan; Giuseppina Fabbiano; Raffaella Morganti; Tom Oosterloo

REVIEW 2 major objections 6 minor 1 cited by

The changing impact of radio jets as they evolve: The view from the cold gas

T0 review · 2 major / 6 minor · reviewed 2026-08-06 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read Extreme CO line ratios reveal where a radio jet is reshaping cold gas in PKS 0023-26.

desk verdict Solid, careful ALMA line-ratio work on one radio galaxy; the central observational results hold up, but the multi-kpc cocoon interpretation is honestly flagged by the authors as not unique because of the ongoing merger. read the letter →

arxiv 2506.20448 v1 pith:FAL6TSVZ submitted 2025-06-25 astro-ph.GA

Tom Oosterloo , Raffaella Morganti , Clive Tadhunter , Aneta Siemiginowska , Ewan O'Sullivan , Giuseppina Fabbiano This is my paper · ORCID

classification astro-ph.GA

keywords AGNfeedbackcoldmoleculargasCOlineratiosradiojetsyounggalaxiesjet-ISMinteractionexcitationALMAobservations

verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper uses millimetre-wave observations of three carbon monoxide transitions (CO(1-0), CO(2-1), and CO(3-2)) to trace how the jet of a young radio galaxy, PKS 0023-26, affects its cold molecular gas from the nucleus out to several kiloparsecs. The authors establish that the jet's impact shows up in the excitation state and spatial distribution of the gas—extreme CO line ratios aligned with the radio axis, and an absence of CO(1-0) at the radio core—rather than only in gas kinematics, which are strongly disturbed only in the central kiloparsec. The gas appears wrapped around the northern radio lobe, suggesting a strong jet-cloud interaction has destroyed molecular clouds there, while a milder interaction with an expanding jet cocoon excites and stirs gas over larger scales. If this picture holds, AGN feedback can be diagnosed through molecular line ratios and gas distribution even where kinematics show little disturbance, and the energy transferred to the cold gas is a small fraction of the jet power.

What carries the argument

The central diagnostic is the set of brightness-temperature line ratios R21 and R32 built from three CO transitions observed at matched spatial and spectral resolution. These ratios trace molecular gas excitation and optical depth; extreme values mark gas heated or stirred by the jet and its expanding cocoon, letting the authors map jet influence independently of kinematics. The cocoon of shocked gas created by the jet-ISM interaction, predicted by simulations to expand perpendicular to the jet, provides the mechanism that carries the interpretation of high ratios several kiloparsecs away from the radio axis.

What would settle it

Spatially resolve CO(1-0), CO(2-1), and CO(3-2) in gas-rich galaxy mergers that lack active nuclei; if regions with R32 > 0.6 extending about 2 to 5 kpc are found in such mergers, the cocoon interpretation for the outer high-excitation region of PKS 0023-26 would need to be abandoned in favour of merger turbulence.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The paper establishes that in PKS 0023-26, a powerful young radio galaxy, the radio jet modifies the cold molecular interstellar medium in ways that are clearly visible in CO excitation and morphology. The brightness-temperature ratio R32 (CO(3-2)/CO(2-1)) peaks at values of about 1.0 to 1.2 in the region between the core and the northern lobe, and the region with R32 > 0.6 extends roughly 2 to 5 kpc beyond the radio source, with R21 > 1.9 in the central beam where CO(1-0) is undetected. These ratios are far above those of normal star-forming galaxies (R21 around 0.6 and R32 between 0.2 and 0.6). The authors interpret the coincidence of the extreme ratios with the radio emission as evidence of jet-ISM interaction: a destructive interaction at the northern lobe depletes molecular gas there, while a slowly expanding cocoon of shocked gas drives turbulence and high excitation over a larger volume, including perpendicular to the jet. They conclude that AGN impact can be traced through line ratios and gas distribution as well as kinematics, and that most of the jet energy escapes the galaxy.

Load-bearing premise

The load-bearing premise is that the jet cocoon, not the ongoing galaxy merger, produces the high CO excitation beyond the northern lobe and perpendicular to the jet; if merger-driven turbulence alone can produce the same line ratios, the cocoon interpretation for the outer high-excitation region would be unsupported.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

Surveys of AGN feedback that rely only on gas kinematics will miss jet influence; spatially resolved mapping of multiple CO transitions is a complementary and sometimes more sensitive tracer.
In young radio galaxies one can expect a spatial stratification of feedback: ejective in the central kiloparsec, destructive at the radio lobes, and a milder, cocoon-driven enhancement of turbulence and excitation on multi-kiloparsec scales.
The small fraction of jet power transferred to the cold gas (kinetic power below about 0.05 percent of the jet power) suggests most of the energy escapes to the circumgalactic medium, so jets may affect galaxy halos more than host ISMs.
High CO excitation in regions oriented perpendicular to radio jets can serve as a signpost for a growing jet cocoon in gas-rich galaxies, extending the diagnostic beyond individual objects.
The coexistence of different interaction modes within one source implies that spatially resolving the full extent of the radio source is necessary to quantify AGN feedback reliably.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

If the cocoon interpretation is correct, other young radio galaxies of similar power should show high R32 regions elongated perpendicular to their jet axes; a statistical study of resolved line ratios could test this pattern.
The paper's own merger caveat suggests a clean control: spatially resolved CO line-ratio imaging of gas-rich galaxy mergers without active nuclei would show whether high excitation regions beyond the radio source are unique to jet-ISM coupling or a generic merger phenomenon.
The non-detection of CO(1-0) at the core could point to X-ray or cosmic-ray heating suppressing low-J CO emission; deep observations of higher-J CO or isotopologues at high angular resolution could separate the heating mechanisms.
The measured low coupling efficiency implies that a full energy budget requires multi-phase measurements—hot X-ray gas, warm ionised gas, and cold molecular gas—rather than a single tracer, to quantify where jet energy is ultimately deposited.

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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Desk Editor's Note

read the letter

The observational core here is in good shape. The new ALMA CO(1-0) and CO(3-2) data, combined with the earlier CO(2-1) cube, give the first resolved three-transition line-ratio maps for PKS 0023-26. The masking strategy (using the highest-S/N cube for all transitions) and the subtraction of absorption via clean components are exactly the kind of care that keeps line ratios from being S/N artifacts. The CO(1-0) non-detection at the core, with a lower limit of R21 > 1.9, is a clean and striking result. The reported R32 values of 1.0-1.2 along the jet axis and the gas wrapping around the northern lobe are also convincing as measurements. This is reproducible observational evidence, and the paper does not overclaim the data itself.

Where I agree with the stress-test note: the novel physical interpretation—that the high-R32 region extending 2-5 kpc beyond the N lobe and perpendicular to the jet is caused by the expanding jet cocoon—is not uniquely forced by the data. The galaxy is clearly in an ongoing merger, with tidal tails and unsettled gas. The authors themselves say in Sect. 4.1 that turbulence from accreted gas settling 'might explain the region of enhanced excitation beyond the N lobe,' and the Conclusions describe that outer region as 'difficult to reconcile' with the cocoon picture. That is an honest concession, and it means the most interesting claim is conditional. But the paper does the right thing by spelling out a testable discriminator: line-ratio studies of non-AGN mergers. If those show similar high R32 values, the cocoon interpretation for the outer region falls; if not, it gains support. The central-kpc anomalies and the lobe depletion stand regardless.

The energetics section is standard and properly caveated; the conclusion that only a small fraction of jet energy is transferred to the ISM is not load-bearing for the main result. My only minor gripe is that the abstract slightly overstates the cocoon case relative to the body of the paper, but that is a fixable wording issue.

This is a single-object study, so the significance is incremental rather than transformative. But it is honest, technically sound, and adds a useful datapoint to the growing sample of AGN where CO excitation is spatially resolved. I would send it to a serious referee and expect it to be publishable after minor revision, provided the interpretation stays as carefully hedged as it is in the discussion. I would not desk-reject it, and I would not demand new data; the condition the authors pose is clear and falsifiable.

Referee Report

2 major / 6 minor

Summary. This paper presents new ALMA CO(1-0) and CO(3-2) observations of the young radio galaxy PKS 0023−26 (z=0.32188), combined with the existing CO(2-1) data of Morganti et al. (2021). The data are matched in resolution and velocity binning, absorption is removed from the CO(1-0) cube via clean components, and the same source mask derived from the highest-S/N transition is applied to all three transitions to avoid S/N-dependent biases in line ratios. The main observational results are: (1) CO(1-0) is not detected at the radio core while CO(2-1) and CO(3-2) are bright there, implying R21 ≳ 1.9 in the central beam; (2) the CO(3-2) emission shows a broad central profile (FWZI ~600 km/s) and high velocity dispersion between the core and the northern lobe; (3) molecular gas is depleted at the northern lobe and appears wrapped around it; and (4) the R32 = I(3-2)/I(2-1) ratio peaks near 1.0–1.2 between the core and the N lobe and remains above 0.6 over a region extending up to ~5 kpc from the source, including an extension beyond the N lobe. The authors interpret the inner region as an AGN-driven outflow and the outer high-ratio gas as evidence of a jet cocoon inducing turbulence and enhanced excitation, while explicitly acknowledging that turbulence from the ongoing galaxy merger is a viable alternative for part of the outer region.

Significance. If the interpretation holds, the paper is a valuable demonstration that AGN feedback can be traced through molecular excitation and gas distribution, not only kinematics, on scales from the central kiloparsec to several kiloparsec, and that different feedback modes (ejective and preventative) can coexist in one source. The observational work is careful: the use of a common mask derived from the highest-S/N transition, the removal of absorption before imaging, and the quoting of extreme ratios against 3-sigma upper limits are all sound practices. The line ratios are measured rather than fitted, and the energetic estimates are explicitly parameterized with literature conversion factors and stated geometric assumptions. The paper also openly identifies the main degeneracy—merger-induced turbulence versus jet-cocoon excitation—and calls for non-AGN merger control observations. The central-kpc line-ratio anomalies and the gas depletion around the N lobe are robust; the multi-kpc cocoon interpretation is plausible but not uniquely established.

major comments (2)

[§4.1, §5, Fig. 8] The most novel interpretation—that the extended R32 > 0.6 region reaching ~2–5 kpc beyond the N lobe and perpendicular to the radio axis is produced by the expanding jet cocoon—is not uniquely supported. The manuscript itself states in §4.1 that turbulence from accreted gas settling in the merger 'might explain the region of enhanced excitation beyond the N lobe' and in §5 that this region is 'difficult to reconcile' with the cocoon picture. Because the galaxy is demonstrably interacting (tidal tails, companions at similar redshift), spatial coincidence with the radio axis is not a decisive discriminator. If merger-driven turbulence alone produces R32 > 0.6 over several kpc, the multi-kpc cocoon claim falls, although the central-kpc anomalies and N-lobe depletion remain valid. Please either provide a quantitative test separating the mechanisms (e.g., comparison with tidal-tail morphology, modeling of merger-driven excitation, or a non-AGN merger control sample) or consistently downgrade the abstract and §3.3 to present the cocoon as one of several viable explanations.
[§3.3, Fig. 8] The R32 map is presented without an uncertainty map or an explicit significance threshold. The statements that R32 reaches 1.0–1.2 between the core and the N lobe and that R32 > 0.6 extends several kpc require a quantitative definition of which pixels are considered detected in both transitions. Please add noise-based confidence contours, or state the S/N threshold used to construct the ratio map and to define the R32 > 0.6 region; without this, the spatial extent of the high-excitation region cannot be assessed.

minor comments (6)

[§3.3] The notation 'R21 /greaterorsimilar1.9' should be typeset as R21 ≳ 1.9.
[§4.3] The object 'IC 5053' appears to be a typo for 'IC 5063' (compare §4.1).
[§4.3] The phrase 'in a ways that can go beyond' should read 'in ways that can go beyond'.
[Table 1, §2] The three transitions have different maximum recoverable scales (4.7, 3.8, and 2.5 arcsec for CO(1-0), CO(2-1), and CO(3-2)); please comment on whether the shorter maximum recoverable scale of the CO(3-2) data affects the line-ratio measurements in the outer low-surface-brightness regions, noting that any missing CO(3-2) flux would bias R32 low, not high.
[§4.1, References] The companion paper (Siemiginowska et al. 2026) is cited as providing X-ray evidence for enhanced hot gas at the N lobe and the R32 peak; since it is listed as submitted, the supporting X-ray interpretation should be marked as preliminary.
[§4.1] The phrase 'the latterly expanding cocoon' is unusual; consider 'the laterally expanding cocoon'.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: the key quantities are measured line ratios and gas distributions, and the jet-impact interpretation is an empirical correlation with an explicitly considered merger alternative.

full rationale

The paper's central claims rest on directly measured ALMA quantities: CO(1-0), CO(2-1), and CO(3-2) integrated intensities, the R32 = I(3-2)/I(2-1) and R21 brightness-temperature ratios, velocity dispersions, and the spatial correspondence of these with the radio continuum. None of these is derived from the conclusion; no parameter is fitted to a subset of the data and then renamed as a prediction. The statement that extreme line ratios in a region aligned with the radio axis indicate conditions different from the undisturbed gas is an observational contrast, not a definitional identity: the ratios are measured independently of the radio-axis alignment, and the undisturbed-gas comparison uses values in the same galaxy at large radii. The non-detection of CO(1-0) at the core is an observational upper limit; calling it 'extreme' via R21 > 1.9 is a calibrated statement of the same detection, not a fitted input. Energetic estimates use literature conversion factors (e.g., alpha_CO = 0.89 or 4.3 M_sun/(K km/s pc^2)) and explicitly stated assumptions about v_out and r_out; these do not feed back into the detection claims. The paper's most interpretive step, the attribution of the outer high-R32 region to a jet cocoon, is not circular because the manuscript itself presents the merger-turbulence alternative in Sect. 4.1 and notes in the Conclusions that the region beyond the N lobe is 'difficult to reconcile' with the cocoon explanation. Self-citations, notably Morganti et al. (2021), which supplies the CO(2-1) data and the earlier scenario, are cumulative: the new CO(1-0) and CO(3-2) observations test that scenario independently. A minor reference to 'Morganti et al. in prep.' for similar scales in other powerful AGN is ancillary and not load-bearing. No uniqueness theorem or ansatz is imported from the authors' prior work. Overall, the derivation chain is self-contained with respect to the measurements; the main vulnerability, if any, is the causal attribution of the outer excitation to the cocoon rather than the merger, which is a scientific alternative the authors explicitly acknowledge, not a circularity.

Assumptions & free parameters 4 free parameters · 3 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The paper's central observational claims (line ratio variations, CO(1-0) non-detection, gas distribution) do not rest on fitted parameters. The energetic estimates (outflow mass, rate, kinetic power) explicitly depend on adopted conversion factors and geometric assumptions, which are clearly stated as upper limits.

free parameters (4)

CO-to-H2 conversion factor alpha_CO = 0.89 M_sun/(K km/s pc^2) (ULIRG-type) or 4.3 (Galactic)
Adopted from literature to convert CO luminosities to molecular gas mass; affects the derived outflow mass upper limit and kinetic power, but not the central line ratio findings.
Outflow velocity v_out = 200 to 300 km/s
Assumed range based on the line profile; used to compute the mass outflow rate and kinetic power upper limit.
Outflow radius r_out = ~1 kpc
Assumed spatial extent of the outflow, about one beam; directly enters the outflow rate estimate.
Excitation temperature Tex from absorption = 5 +/- 1 K
Derived from the ratio of CO(1-0) and CO(2-1) absorption optical depths; used only for the H2 column density estimate toward the N lobe, not for the main conclusions.

assumptions (3)

domain assumption CO line ratios in undisturbed gas of normal star-forming galaxies are R21 about 0.6 +/- 0.2 and R32 about 0.2 to 0.6
Used as the baseline for judging the PKS 0023-26 ratios as extreme; taken from den Brok et al. 2021 and Leroy et al. 2022.
domain assumption The radio source age is about 1e5 yr from the low-frequency spectral turnover
Adopted from Callingham et al. 2017 and O'Dea 1998 to classify PKS 0023-26 as a young, relatively evolved radio galaxy; contextualizes the interpretation but is not central to the observed line ratios.
domain assumption Hydrodynamic simulations of jets in clumpy media (Mukherjee et al. 2016, 2018a) describe the cocoon and cloud-shredding processes
Cited to support the interpretation that high excitation and gas depletion around the N lobe arise from jet-ISM interaction; an alternative explanation, merger-induced turbulence, is acknowledged by the authors.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of The changing impact of radio jets as they evolve: The view from the cold gas." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/FAL6TSVZ

@misc{pith2026250620448,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: The changing impact of radio jets as they evolve: The view from the cold gas},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/FAL6TSVZ}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2506.20448}
}

read the original abstract

We present ALMA CO(1-0) and CO(3-2) observations of a powerful young radio galaxy, PKS 0023-26, hosted by a far-infrared bright galaxy. The galaxy has a luminous optical AGN and a very extended distribution of molecular gas. We used these observations (together with available CO(2-1) data) to trace the impact of the AGN across the extent of the radio emission and beyond on scales of a few kpc. Despite the strength of the optical AGN, the kinematics of the cold molecular gas is strongly affected only in the central kpc, and is more weakly affected around the northern lobe. We found other signatures of the substantial impact of the radio AGN, however. Most notably, extreme line ratios of the CO transitions in a region aligned with the radio axis indicate conditions very different from those observed in the undisturbed gas at large radii. The non-detection of CO(1-0) at the location of the core of the radio source implies extreme conditions at this location. Furthermore, on the scale of a few kpc, the cold molecular gas appears to be wrapped around the northern radio lobe. This suggests that a strong jet-cloud interaction has depleted the northern lobe of molecular gas, perhaps as a result of the hot wind behind the jet-induced shock that shreds the clouds via hydrodynamic instabilities. The higher gas velocity dispersion and molecular excitation that we observed close to this location may then be the result of a milder interaction in which the expanding jet cocoon induces turbulence in the surrounding interstellar medium. These results highlight that the impact of an AGN can manifest itself not only in the kinematics of the gas, but also in molecular line ratios and in the distribution of the gas. Although the radio plasma and the cold molecular gas are clearly coupled, the kinetic energy that is transferred to the ISM is only a small fraction of the energy available from the AGN.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2506.20448 by the authors.

**Figure 2.** Optical image from Gemini (Ramos Almeida et al. 2011). The contours of the CO(3-2) emission are overplotted. Tails are seen toward nearby galaxies (projected distances ∼10 kpc). The galaxies labelled C1, C2, and C3 (outside the figure) are confirmed to have redshifts similar to that of PKS 0023−26 (Tadhunter et al. 2011). inner region might be part of an outflow resulting from the direct interaction of the radio pl… view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Total intensity images of the three transitions on the same flux scale (Jy beam−1 km s−1 ). These images were made from data cubes convolved to the same resolution of 0′′ .45 × 0 ′′ .34 (2.1 × 1.6 kpc; see Sect. 2). In all three panels, the 87-GHz continuum is overplotted with contour levels at 1 and 9 mJy beam−1 . observations. To be on the safe side, we therefore assumed that the error on the derived fluxes is 10%… view at source ↗

**Figure 4.** Spectra of the three transitions at the location of the radio core. of CO(1-0). Overall, the molecular gas is distributed over a region with a diameter of about 3–4 arcsec (14–19 kpc) that surrounds the radio source, but is not centred on it, and is more extended to the W and N. In particular, while the northern lobe appears to be embedded in the molecular gas, the southern lobe is not. From the main body around t… view at source ↗

Figures from the paper (5 more)

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: Subset of channel maps to illustrate the broad velocities in the centre and the CO(3-2) emission wrapping around the northern lobe (contours in red at levels 1, 3, and 9 mJy beam−1 ). 3.3. Line ratios The total intensity images in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p00…

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: Top row and bottom row left: Velocity fields of the three CO transitions . The velocities are only shown for locations in which the S/N of the integrated emission is higher than 5. The contours show the continuum emission at the same frequency as the line emission of t…

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: Position-velocity plot of the CO(3-2) emission (grey scale) obtained from a cut centred at the core and perpendicular to the radio axis (PA = 51◦ ). The plot shows the large velocity width (FWZI ∼ 600 km s−1 ) of the gas in the central regions. The contour levels are …

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Left: Velocity dispersion of the CO(3-2) emission. The 87 GHz radio continuum contours are superposed.Right: Brightness temperature ratio R32 ≡ I3−2/I2−1 . The contours of the radio continuum are superposed. The contour values for the radio continuum are 1, 2, 4, 8 ...…

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: Modified from [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_9.png]

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Forward citations

Cited by 1 Pith paper

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score. Full citation record

Chandra X-ray Observatory study of the X-ray emission of PKS 0023-26 and comparison with recent ALMA results
astro-ph.GA 2025-07 conditional novelty 5.0 of 10

PKS 0023-26 lacks an X-ray bright galaxy cluster but shows a small, hot gas cocoon aligned with its radio jet, pointing to jet-driven shock heating of the host ISM.

Reference graph

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Reviewed August 6, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.

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