pith. sign in

arxiv: 2606.29362 · v1 · pith:TP7RH6BWnew · submitted 2026-06-28 · 🌌 astro-ph.EP

Giant Planet Atmospheres

Henrik Melin This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-30 02:27 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.EP
keywords giant planetsatmospherestropospherestratosphereJupiterSaturnUranusNeptune
0
0 comments X

The pith

Giant planet atmospheres are divided into layers by temperature gradients, with convection cooling the troposphere, UV heating the stratosphere, and auroral processes energizing the upper atmosphere.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This review outlines how the atmospheres of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are organized into regimes set by how temperature changes with height. Internal heat causes convection in the troposphere that cools rising gas and produces weather. Solar ultraviolet radiation heats the stratosphere above it while driving hydrocarbon photochemistry. The upper atmosphere receives energy from extreme ultraviolet light and auroral activity, linking the planet to its space environment. These divisions matter because they shape cloud formation, global winds, and the planets' overall energy balance in the absence of a solid surface.

Core claim

The giant planets have atmospheres dominated by hydrogen and helium that can be divided into the troposphere, where temperatures decrease with altitude as convection carries internal heat upward; the stratosphere, where temperatures increase due to ultraviolet heating and photochemistry; an ill-defined mesosphere; and the upper atmosphere, heated by solar extreme ultraviolet radiation and auroral processes. Internal heat and solar input, combined with rapid rotation, establish global circulation, waves, and instabilities.

What carries the argument

Atmospheric layers defined by temperature gradients and their associated heating mechanisms.

If this is right

  • Energy from internal heat and the Sun plus fast rotation drives global circulation patterns and atmospheric waves.
  • Condensation of water and other volatiles produces clouds in the troposphere.
  • Ultraviolet-driven photochemistry in the stratosphere generates hydrocarbons.
  • Auroral heating connects the upper atmosphere to the planetary magnetosphere and space environment.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same temperature-gradient regimes could be tested on hydrogen-rich exoplanet atmospheres using transmission spectroscopy.
  • Improved remote sensing of the mesosphere region might clarify whether it is truly absent or simply hard to observe.
  • The lack of a solid surface means vertical mixing and heat transport operate differently than on terrestrial planets.

Load-bearing premise

The description assumes the standard layered division of atmospheres and the established causes of heating in each layer are accurate without presenting new measurements.

What would settle it

Direct temperature measurements from an entry probe showing temperature increasing with height throughout the troposphere or decreasing throughout the stratosphere would contradict the claimed structure.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.29362 by Henrik Melin.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: A giant planet family portrait: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2021. Source: NASA, ESA, A. Simon (Goddard Space Flight Center), and M. H. Wong (University of California, Berkeley) and the OPAL team. The giant planets get their name by virtue of being very large, as summarized in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p002_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: (a) The vertical temperature profile of Earth. (b) The temperature profiles of the giant planets. Source: Adapted from O’Donoghue and Stallard (2022). 2.1 Deep Interior On Earth, the solid surface absorbs sunlight, which in turn heats the atmosphere at ground level. The giant planets do not have solid surfaces; however, there is still a source of heat available in the deep atmosphere. This is energy left f… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: The basic interior composition of the giant planets. 2.2 Troposphere The visual appearance of the giant planets is defined by sunlight reflected from the clouds and hazes in the troposphere, the lower part of the atmosphere. This is the weather layer, which is largely opaque and dominated by convection and turbulence. Internal heat provides a source of heat at low altitudes, and as parcels of air rise towa… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The observed zonal wind velocities on Jupiter (Porco et al., 2003), Saturn (García-Melendo et al., 2011), Uranus (Hammel et al., 2001), and Neptune (French et al., 1998). 4.2 Zonal Winds The observed zonal (i.e., east–west) winds in the troposphere for the four giant planets are shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: An illustration of the Taylor–Proudman effect of a rotating liquid sphere (black), with and without a core (green). The liquid tends to organize into rotating cylinders (red), with each cylinder rotating in an opposite sense compared to the one next to it. While cylinders occupy the entire volume of the sphere, only a cross-section is shown here for clarity. The presence of a core will disconnect the cylin… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The deep vertical ammonia abundance as measured by the Juno Microwave Radiometer (MWR). Source: Adapted from Moeckel et al. (2023). from the Juno MWR, which observed the deep abundance of ammonia (Li et al., 2017; Moeckel et al., 2023), as shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: A JunoCam observation of Jupiter’s Great Red Spot (GRS) from September 7, 2023. Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/MSSS, image processing by Kevin M. Gill, © CC BY. The most striking feature in the atmosphere of Jupiter is the GRS, as shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: The hexagon in Saturn’s northern hemisphere obtained by Cassini at 728 nm. Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute. One of the more remarkable features of Saturn’s troposphere is the presence of a persistent polar hexagon in the northern hemisphere (Godfrey, 1988), as shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Uranus imaged by NIRCam on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in the infrared. Source: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI. 6.1 Uranus Uranus is unique in many ways. It effectively rotates “on its side,” generating extreme seasons, during which the northern pole is sunlit all the time at northern solstice ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Neptune imaged by NIRCam on the JWST. Source: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, image processing by Joseph DePasquale (STScI) and Naomi Rowe-Gurney (NASA-GSFC). The visual appearance of Neptune is dominated by bright clouds that disappear within days of appearing ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: (a) The vertical temperature profile as measured by the Galileo probe (Seiff et al., 1996) on December 7, 1995. (b) A Hubble Space Telescope Wide Field Camera 3 image taken on October 5, 1995, using the F410M filter. The entry path of the probe while traversing the upper atmosphere is shown, where the color indicates the altitude of the spacecraft measurement. 7.4 Entry Probes There are distinct advantage… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, all have vibrant and dynamic atmospheres. The iconic belt--zone structure of Jupiter, together with the Great Red Spot, is instantly recognizable. Saturn, with its dramatic ring system and more muted atmosphere, is a formidable jewel in the Solar System. In the outer reaches, the pale blue Uranus and Neptune are found, worlds about which ultimately very little is known. The atmospheres of these planets are dominated by hydrogen and helium, and unlike the Earth, they do not have a solid surface. These differences generate inherently different types of atmospheres, but there are also similarities. For example, the condensation of water, which forms the familiar clouds on Earth, also occurs on the giant planets. Broadly speaking, the atmosphere can be divided into different regimes defined by their temperature gradients. In the troposphere, where weather occurs, the temperatures decrease as a function of increasing altitude as convection moves internal heat upward; the rising material expands and cools. Above this region lies the stratosphere, defined by a positive temperature gradient, where hydrocarbons are heated by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun (analogous to ozone heating in the terrestrial stratosphere), which also drives substantial photochemistry. This is followed by a mesosphere that cools as a function of altitude, a region that is ill-defined at the giant planets. Finally, the upper atmosphere connects to the space environment and is heated by both solar extreme ultraviolet light and auroral processes. The giant planets are energized both by internal heat and by solar heating. These energy inputs, along with the fast rotation rates of these planets, drive dynamics by establishing global circulation patterns and generating both waves and instabilities. [...]

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

0 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript provides a qualitative overview of the atmospheres of the giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune), noting their H/He dominance, lack of solid surface, water condensation, and division into atmospheric layers defined by temperature gradients: troposphere (negative lapse rate from convection of internal heat), stratosphere (positive gradient from solar UV heating and photochemistry), mesosphere (cooling with altitude, noted as ill-defined), and upper atmosphere (heated by solar EUV and auroral processes). It briefly mentions dynamics driven by internal/solar energy and rapid rotation.

Significance. If the descriptions hold, the significance is low: the content restates long-established consensus in planetary science without new observations, quantitative models, derivations, data reductions, or falsifiable predictions. No machine-checked proofs, reproducible code, or parameter-free results are present.

minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the provided text ends abruptly with '[...]', leaving the discussion of dynamics and energy inputs incomplete.
  2. No equations, tables, or figures are referenced or presented, consistent with a purely descriptive summary but limiting any quantitative assessment.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their review. The manuscript is a qualitative overview of established concepts in giant planet atmospheric science, and we address the assessment of its significance below.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: If the descriptions hold, the significance is low: the content restates long-established consensus in planetary science without new observations, quantitative models, derivations, data reductions, or falsifiable predictions. No machine-checked proofs, reproducible code, or parameter-free results are present. REFEREE RECOMMENDATION: reject

    Authors: We agree that the manuscript synthesizes long-established knowledge on the H/He-dominated atmospheres, temperature-defined layers (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, upper atmosphere), photochemistry, condensation processes, and dynamics driven by internal heat, solar input, and rapid rotation. It contains no new observations, models, or quantitative predictions. The purpose is to provide a concise, accessible description of these features for readers new to the subject, rather than to advance original research. We do not plan to modify the manuscript to include novel content. revision: no

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity detected

full rationale

The manuscript is a purely descriptive review summarizing established atmospheric layering (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere) and heating mechanisms for the giant planets. No equations, derivations, parameter fits, or quantitative predictions are advanced anywhere in the text. All attributions match long-standing consensus models and do not reduce to any self-referential construction, self-citation load-bearing step, or fitted-input renaming. The argument is therefore self-contained against external benchmarks with no circular steps present.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

The paper is a review and introduces no new free parameters, axioms, or invented entities; it draws on standard domain knowledge.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5820 in / 911 out tokens · 31081 ms · 2026-06-30T02:27:13.038411+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

299 extracted references · 282 canonical work pages · 5 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    Derived Products for `Temporal variability of the northern infrared Aurora of Jupiter as captured by

    Melin, Henrik , date-added =. Derived Products for `Temporal variability of the northern infrared Aurora of Jupiter as captured by. doi:10.5281/zenodo.16535636 , publisher =

    work page doi:10.5281/zenodo.16535636

  2. [2]

    Data for Jupiter programme \#3665 [Dataset] , year = 2024, bdsk-url-1 =

    Melin, Henrik , date-added =. Data for Jupiter programme \#3665 [Dataset] , year = 2024, bdsk-url-1 =. doi:10.17909/zp4p-0c93 , month = aug, publisher =

    work page doi:10.17909/zp4p-0c93 2024

  3. [3]

    doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.12.048 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.12.048 2015

  4. [4]

    doi:10.1007/s11214-014-0094-y , journal =

    work page doi:10.1007/s11214-014-0094-y

  5. [5]

    doi:10.1038/s41550-024-02389-3 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-024-02389-3

  6. [6]

    AAS/Division for Planetary Sciences Meeting Abstracts \#55 , date-added =

  7. [7]

    JWST Calibration Pipeline , url =

    Bushouse, Howard and Eisenhamer, Jonathan and Dencheva, Nadia and Davies, James and Greenfield, Perry and Morrison, Jane and Hodge, Phil and Simon, Bernie and Grumm, David and Droettboom, Michael and Slavich, Edward and Sosey, Megan and Pauly, Tyler and Miller, Todd and Jedrzejewski, Robert and Hack, Warren and Davis, David and Crawford, Steven and Law, D...

    work page doi:10.5281/zenodo.7229890

  8. [8]

    doi:10.1029/2025JA033868 , eid =

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Space Physics) , month = may, number =. doi:10.1029/2025JA033868 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2025ja033868

  9. [9]

    and Clark, George , date-added =

    Gershman, Daniel J. and Clark, George , date-added =. Predictions of Auroral Electron Precipitation and Joule Heating at Uranus , url =. Geophysical Research Letters , keywords =. 2025 , bdsk-url-1 =. doi:https://doi.org/10.1029/2024GL114470 , eprint =

    work page doi:10.1029/2024gl114470 2025

  10. [10]

    doi:10.1029/2024GL112001 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/2024gl112001

  11. [11]

    doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02492-z , journal =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02492-z

  12. [12]

    doi:10.1029/2021JE007169 , eid =

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Planets) , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2021JE007169 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2021je007169

  13. [13]

    doi:10.1007/s11214-014-0042-x , journal =

    work page doi:10.1007/s11214-014-0042-x

  14. [14]

    doi:10.1029/2021JA030224 , eid =

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Space Physics) , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2021JA030224 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2021ja030224

  15. [15]

    doi:10.1029/2005JE002411 , eid =

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Planets) , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2005JE002411 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2005je002411

  16. [16]

    doi:10.1016/j.pss.2015.03.008 , eprint =

    , keywords =. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2015.03.008 , eprint =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.pss.2015.03.008 2015

  17. [17]

    doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58984-z , eid =

    Nature Communications , keywords =. doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58984-z , eid =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58984-z

  18. [18]

    doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02507-9 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-025-02507-9

  19. [19]

    doi:10.1088/0953-4075/27/23/018 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1088/0953-4075/27/23/018

  20. [20]

    M Danko and J. Orsz. Electron Induced Fluorescence Spectra of Methane , url =. WDS'11 Proceedings of Contributed Papers, Part II , date-added =. 2011 , bdsk-url-1 =

    2011

  21. [21]

    doi:10.1002/2015JA021272 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1002/2015ja021272

  22. [22]

    doi:10.1029/2024GL113751 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/2024gl113751

  23. [23]

    doi:10.1029/2021JE00695410.1002/essoar.10507057.1 , eid =

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Planets) , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2021JE00695410.1002/essoar.10507057.1 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2021je00695410.1002/essoar.10507057.1

  24. [24]

    doi:10.1029/GL004i002p00065 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/gl004i002p00065

  25. [25]

    arXiv , author =:2503.19153 , journal =

    doi:10.3847/PSJ/adc09b , eid =. arXiv , author =:2503.19153 , journal =

    work page doi:10.3847/psj/adc09b

  26. [26]

    doi:10.1029/2023JA032122 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2023ja032122

  27. [27]

    An overview of the NIRSPEC upgrade for the Keck II telescope

    Ground-based and Airborne Instrumentation for Astronomy VII , date-added =. doi:10.1117/12.2312266 , editor =. arXiv , author =:1808.06024 , keywords =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1117/12.2312266

  28. [28]

    doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116453 , eid =

    , keywords =. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116453 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116453 2024

  29. [29]

    arXiv , author =:2402.19069 , journal =

    doi:10.1029/2024JA032613 , eid =. arXiv , author =:2402.19069 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/2024ja032613

  30. [30]

    doi:10.1029/2003JE002230 , eid =

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Planets) , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2003JE002230 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2003je002230

  31. [31]

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348634 , eid =

    , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348634 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348634

  32. [32]

    doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2007.11.006 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2007.11.006 2007

  33. [33]

    doi:10.1002/2014JA020514 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1002/2014ja020514

  34. [34]

    doi:10.1029/2021JA02988610.1002/essoar.10507765.1 , eid =

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Space Physics) , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2021JA02988610.1002/essoar.10507765.1 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2021ja02988610.1002/essoar.10507765.1

  35. [35]

    doi:10.1029/2009JA014051 , eid =

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Space Physics) , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2009JA014051 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2009ja014051

  36. [36]

    h3ppy: An open-source Python package for modelling and fitting H _3^+ spectra , url =

    Henrik Melin , date-added =. h3ppy: An open-source Python package for modelling and fitting H _3^+ spectra , url =. 2025 , bdsk-url-1 =. doi:10.21105/joss.07536 , journal =

    work page doi:10.21105/joss.07536 2025

  37. [37]

    doi:10.1029/2006GL027375 , eid =

    , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2006GL027375 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2006gl027375

  38. [38]

    doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.06.039 , eprint =

    , keywords =. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.06.039 , eprint =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.06.039 2010

  39. [39]

    doi:10.1007/s11214-014-0040-z , journal =

    work page doi:10.1007/s11214-014-0040-z

  40. [40]

    doi:10.1038/s41550-019-0743-x , journal =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-019-0743-x

  41. [41]

    doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.06.023 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.06.023 2016

  42. [42]

    arXiv , author =:2406.08133 , journal =

    doi:10.1029/2024JE008299 , eid =. arXiv , author =:2406.08133 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/2024je008299

  43. [43]

    doi:10.1029/2024JA032723 , eid =

    Journal of Geophysical Research (Space Physics) , keywords =. doi:10.1029/2024JA032723 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1029/2024ja032723

  44. [44]

    arXiv , author =:2211.05253 , journal =

    doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2022.115328 , eid =. arXiv , author =:2211.05253 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2022.115328 2022

  45. [45]

    doi:10.1016/j.pss.2021.105178 , eid =

    , keywords =. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2021.105178 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.pss.2021.105178 2021

  46. [46]

    doi:10.1029/2024GL111623 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/2024gl111623

  47. [47]

    doi:10.1029/2024JA032891 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/2024ja032891

  48. [49]

    doi:10.1038/323605a0 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1038/323605a0

  49. [50]

    doi:10.1029/JA095iA12p20967 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/ja095ia12p20967

  50. [51]

    doi:10.1126/science.212.4491.239 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1126/science.212.4491.239

  51. [52]

    doi:10.1038/280794a0 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1038/280794a0

  52. [53]

    doi:10.1038/ncomms10231 , eid =

    Nature Communications , month = dec, pages =. doi:10.1038/ncomms10231 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1038/ncomms10231

  53. [54]

    arXiv , author =:2410.02468 , journal =

    doi:10.1029/2024JE008415 , eid =. arXiv , author =:2410.02468 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/2024je008415

  54. [55]

    doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.12.041 , eprint =

    , keywords =. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.12.041 , eprint =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.12.041 2017

  55. [56]

    doi:10.1017/9781316227220.013 , editor =

    Saturn in the 21st Century , date-added =. doi:10.1017/9781316227220.013 , editor =

    work page doi:10.1017/9781316227220.013

  56. [57]

    Journal of the British Astronomical Association , month = oct, pages =

  57. [58]

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244200 , eid =

    , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244200 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244200

  58. [59]

    doi:10.1098/rspa.1923.0103 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1098/rspa.1923.0103 1923

  59. [60]

    doi:10.1007/s00159-009-0021-5 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1007/s00159-009-0021-5

  60. [61]

    doi:10.1038/nature05438 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1038/nature05438

  61. [62]

    doi:10.1126/science.247.4946.1061 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1126/science.247.4946.1061

  62. [63]

    A Hexagon in Saturn's Northern Stratosphere Surrounding the Emerging Summertime Polar Vortex

    doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06017-3 , eid =. arXiv , author =:1809.00572 , journal =

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06017-3

  63. [64]

    doi:10.1126/science.247.4947.1206 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1126/science.247.4947.1206

  64. [65]

    doi:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90075-9 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90075-9

  65. [66]

    doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.11.035 , eprint =

    , keywords =. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.11.035 , eprint =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.11.035 2013

  66. [67]

    arXiv , author =:2305.06787 , journal =

    doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346621 , eid =. arXiv , author =:2305.06787 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346621

  67. [68]

    arXiv , author =:2112.00033 , journal =

    doi:10.3847/PSJ/ac5aa4 , eid =. arXiv , author =:2112.00033 , journal =

    work page doi:10.3847/psj/ac5aa4

  68. [69]

    doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.05.028 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.05.028 2011

  69. [70]

    doi:10.1029/JA092iA13p15093 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/ja092ia13p15093

  70. [71]

    arXiv , author =:2111.15494 , journal =

    doi:10.1098/rsta.2019.0476 , eid =. arXiv , author =:2111.15494 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1098/rsta.2019.0476 2019

  71. [72]

    doi:10.1029/JA092iA13p14987 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/ja092ia13p14987

  72. [73]

    doi:10.1006/icar.1998.6000 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1006/icar.1998.6000 1998

  73. [74]

    doi:10.1038/nature12131 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1038/nature12131

  74. [75]

    arXiv , author =:2006.11367 , journal =

    doi:10.1098/rsta.2019.0477 , eid =. arXiv , author =:2006.11367 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1098/rsta.2019.0477 2019

  75. [76]

    doi:10.1126/science.233.4759.70 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1126/science.233.4759.70

  76. [77]

    doi:10.1029/JA092iA13p15011 , journal =

    work page doi:10.1029/ja092ia13p15011

  77. [78]

    arXiv , author =:1911.12830 , journal =

    doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab5dc7 , eid =. arXiv , author =:1911.12830 , journal =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab5dc7 1911

  78. [79]

    doi:10.1098/rsta.2019.0489 , eid =

    Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A , month = dec, number =. doi:10.1098/rsta.2019.0489 , eid =

    work page doi:10.1098/rsta.2019.0489 2019

  79. [80]

    Neptune and Triton , date-added =

  80. [81]

    Uranus , date-added =

Showing first 80 references.