pith. sign in

arxiv: 2604.13655 · v1 · pith:XJK23XI2new · submitted 2026-04-15 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Massive star clusters and clumps in the collisional ring galaxy Arp 147

Z. Randriamanakoto , M. Rakototafika , B. Mongwane , P. V\"ais\"anen , M. Rakotomanga This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-10 13:03 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords Arp 147collisional ring galaxiesstar clustersstar formationcluster mass functiongalaxy interactionsphotometrystarburst
0
0 comments X

The pith

Arp 147's ring-forming collision produced 211 young massive star knots with a truncated mass function and only mild later disruption.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper uses Hubble images to catalog star clusters across the empty ring of the collisional galaxy Arp 147 and to reconstruct when and how efficiently new clusters formed after the galaxies passed through each other. Nearly sixty percent of the 211 knots are younger than ten million years and two thirds exceed one hundred thousand solar masses, while the mass distribution for clusters ten to two hundred million years old bends downward at high masses instead of continuing as a power law. Cluster formation efficiency reaches forty percent in the youngest interval but falls to three percent for older knots, and the age distribution implies only slow disruption. These patterns indicate that the collision compressed gas into an expanding ring that rapidly assembled many new clusters while leaving most of them intact over the following hundred million years.

Core claim

Arp 147 hosts 211 knots and six kpc-size clumps, nearly sixty percent younger than 10 Myr and two thirds above 10^5 solar masses. The cluster mass function for knots aged 10-200 Myr follows a Schechter function truncated at 6.2 times 10^5 solar masses, most clearly in the eastern ring segment. Over that interval the disruption parameter is 0.25 and cluster formation efficiency is 3 percent, while efficiency rises to nearly 40 percent for knots 1-10 Myr old, demonstrating that the drop-through collision created conditions for abundant young cluster formation and only mild subsequent disruption.

What carries the argument

Age and mass estimates derived from three-band HST photometry of the 211 knots, followed by construction of the cluster mass function and cluster age function to measure truncation, disruption rate, and formation efficiency.

If this is right

  • Galaxy collisions that produce rings can drive a second generation of young blue clusters in large numbers.
  • The cluster mass function in these environments is truncated rather than extending indefinitely as a power law.
  • Disruption proceeds slowly enough that many clusters formed in the ring survive for hundreds of millions of years.
  • Cluster formation efficiency is highest immediately after the collision and drops sharply within the first ten million years.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Ring galaxies may provide cleaner laboratories than merging systems for isolating the effects of triggered star formation because the interaction is a single passage rather than a full merger.
  • The characteristic truncation mass in the cluster mass function could be set by the maximum density reached in the expanding gaseous ring.
  • Repeating the same analysis on other collisional ring galaxies would test whether high young-cluster formation efficiency and low disruption are general outcomes of this type of encounter.

Load-bearing premise

Optical colors alone can separate the ages of dusty young clusters from older clusters with little dust despite the known degeneracy between age and reddening.

What would settle it

Ultraviolet or H-alpha imaging that assigns substantially older ages to many of the currently identified young knots or that yields a disruption rate much higher than 0.25.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.13655 by B. Mongwane, M. Rakotomanga, M. Rakototafika, P. V\"ais\"anen, Z. Randriamanakoto.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: False colour optical image of Arp 147 taken with the HST/WFPC2 F450W, F606W, and F814W broadband filters. The intrusion of the red elliptical galaxy (east) into the field of the spiral galaxy tidally stretched the latter into a blue ring-like structure with bright star-forming regions. A plume extending from the N-NE of the ring also hosts trails of blue knots. The reddish area on the S-SE side of the ring… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Spatial distributions of the knots (crosses) and the kpc-sized clumps (open squares) on the F606W image of Arp 147. The horizontal line marks a scale bar of 1 kpc [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Recovered completeness fractions after applying a 𝜎𝑚 cut to the detected catalogues in the F450W (blue lines), F606W (green), and F814W (red) images. Solid and dashed lines show the recovery rates outside and inside the ring, respectively. The horizontal lines denote the 50 (cyan) and 80 (black) per cent completeness limits. 2.9 × 104 M⊙ and 4.1 × 104 M⊙, assuming the mass-to-light ratio at that age and Yg… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: CMD (F606W vs F450W − F606W, left) and CCD (F450W − F606W vs F606W − F814W, right) of the star-forming knots inside (circles) and outside (squares) the ring of Arp 147. Solid triangles represent the knots in the dusty S-SE region. Density contour plots are overlaid to show the distribution of the clusters. The greyscale bars represent F606W magnitude (F450W − F606W colour index) where darker shades corresp… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Distributions of the derived cluster ages (left), masses (middle), and extinctions (right) depending on the assumed metallicity 𝑍 and the gas covering factor 𝑓cov. Top and bottom panels correspond to metallicities of 𝑍 = 0.004 and 𝑍 = 0.008, respectively. 4.2 Ages, masses and extinctions of the blue knots 4.2.1 Which Yggdrasil models to consider? [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Mass vs age distribution of the cluster population. Red circles represent the knots embedded in the reddish area of the ring. The dashed lines mark the mass limits assuming 80 per cent completeness limits in the F606W (green) and F814W (red) filters. Mcl > 106.5 M⊙, labelled as solid diamonds in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: The spatial distributions of the star-forming knots as a function of their age (left), mass (middle), and extinction (right). The different labels correspond to four different bin ranges as shown in the legend of each panel. The cross marks the centre of the ring which is defined by the grey area [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Comparisons of the knot parameters obtained from fitting Yggdrasil (black markers and histograms) and Starburst99 (grey) SSP models. Displayed are the age-mass plane (top left panel) and the distributions of the cluster mass (top right), age (bottom left), and extinction (bottom right) parameters. The dashed lines in the age-mass plane represent the mass limits assuming 80 per cent completeness limits in t… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: The azimuthal age (left) and radial mass (right) distributions of the blue knots. The solid points represent the mean ages and mean masses per 30◦ AZ bin size and per 2.5 kpc bin size, respectively. The major axis of the ring refers to the 0 ◦ AZ. The reddish S-SE area is the reference point used to estimate the radial distance. out if the collision-triggered starburst event gets superimposed with an appar… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Cumulative CLFs corrected from observational incompleteness using the F450W (blue curve), F606W (green), and F814W (red) photometric data points. The black curves represent the original CLFs before applying completeness correction. The black dashed and solid lines denote a single PL fit to the sources brighter than the 80 per cent completeness limits (vertical lines) using least-square and Bayesian fittin… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Cumulative CMFs of the blue knots as a function of the age interval (see the insets). Solid and dash-dotted lines respectively represent Bayesian PL and Sch fits to the CMFs for knots with Mcl ≥ Mcut. The vertical lines denote log(Mcut/M⊙ ) = 4.46 (dotted line) and 5.37 (dashed) to get mass-limited samples for 𝜏 < 10 Myr and 𝜏 < 200 Myr, respectively. prone to incompleteness. The measured truncation of th… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Cluster age function of a mass-limited sample more massive than log(Mcl/M⊙ ) = 5.37. Solid, dashed and dotted lines mark the ages at 10, 50 and 200 Myr. The blue line represents a PL fit to the distribution within the age range 10 − 200 Myr with the recovered slope 𝛿 included in the inset. The dashed area marks the ages above 200 Myr at which incompleteness artificially steepens the distribution. the gala… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: The cluster formation efficiency (Γ) plotted against the SFR density (ΣSFR). The open symbols denote the data points from this work. The grey and black solid markers respectively represent data points taken from the literature assuming age intervals of 1 − 10 Myr and 10 − 100 Myr when deriving the value of Γ. Solid and dashed black lines represent the predicted fiducial model from Kruijssen (2012) assumin… view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Cumulative CMFs on sub-galactic scales: N/S (left panel) and E/W regions (right). The open circles represent data points associated with the northern or eastern region, and the crosses those of the southern or western region. Three age intervals of 1 − 200 Myr (purple), 1 − 10 Myr (cyan) and 10 − 200 Myr (orange) were considered for each sub-galactic sample. Other labels the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:f… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We conduct a photometric study of star clusters (or knots) in the collisional ring galaxy (CRG) Arp 147 to trace the star formation history across its empty ring. Using HST F450W, F606W and F814W images, we find that Arp 147 hosts 211 knots and six kpc-size clumps, nearly 60 per cent of which have ages below 10 Myr, and two thirds have masses above $\rm 10^{5}\,M_{\odot}$. The cluster mass function (CMF) of knots with ages between $10 - 200$ Myr deviates from a power-law and follows a Schechter function with a characteristic truncation mass of ${\rm M}_{c} = 6.2 \times 10^{5} \, {\rm M}_{\odot}$. This shape of the CMF is more prominent for a subsample of knots in the eastern region of the ring. Over the same age interval, we derive a low rate of disruption ($\delta \sim 0.25$) from the cluster age function and a cluster formation efficiency (CFE) of $\sim$ 3 per cent. In contrast, the CFE in the $1 - 10$ Myr age range is nearly 40 per cent. We note the lack of high-resolution UV and H$\alpha$ observations to help break age-extinction degeneracy which affects the derived ages for dusty young clusters and old ones with low reddening. Nevertheless, this study has shown, at least to a first-order approximation, that collision-triggered starburst events happening across the CRG offer an ideal environment for a second generation of young blue knots to form in abundance. It also suggests that the drop-through collision between the two galaxies can fuel at least mild cluster disruption over time.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper performs a photometric study of 211 star clusters/knots and six kpc-scale clumps in the collisional ring galaxy Arp 147 using HST F450W/F606W/F814W imaging. It reports that ~60% of knots are younger than 10 Myr with two-thirds above 10^5 M⊙, derives a Schechter CMF with truncation mass Mc = 6.2 × 10^5 M⊙ for the 10–200 Myr subsample (more prominent in the eastern ring), a disruption parameter δ ≈ 0.25 from the age function, and CFE values of ~3% (10–200 Myr) versus ~40% (1–10 Myr). The work concludes that the collision-driven starburst provides an environment for abundant young cluster formation and at least mild disruption, while noting the age-extinction degeneracy limitation from the available photometry.

Significance. If the photometric ages and masses prove robust, the results add a useful case study of cluster populations in a collisional ring galaxy, quantifying how interactions can drive elevated young-cluster formation efficiency and a Schechter-shaped CMF. The contrast in CFE between age bins and the low disruption rate provide testable numbers for models of cluster evolution in starburst environments triggered by galaxy collisions.

major comments (3)
  1. [Abstract and age/mass derivation sections] Abstract and results on age-binned statistics: The headline numbers (~60% of knots <10 Myr, Mc = 6.2 × 10^5 M⊙, δ ~ 0.25, CFE ~3% vs ~40%) are derived from ages and masses obtained solely from three-band optical photometry. The abstract itself flags the age-extinction degeneracy for dusty young clusters versus old low-reddening ones, yet no quantitative propagation of this uncertainty into the reported fractions, CMF shape, or derived parameters is provided. This directly affects the reliability of all age-binned conclusions.
  2. [CMF fitting and age function sections] CMF and disruption analysis: The claim that the 10–200 Myr CMF follows a Schechter function with a specific truncation mass, and the derivation of δ ~ 0.25 from the age function, rest on the accuracy of the age assignments and the selection of that subsample. Without error bars on Mc, details of the fitting procedure, or tests of how misclassified ages would alter the functional form, it is unclear whether the deviation from a power law is robust.
  3. [CFE derivation] CFE calculation: The reported factor-of-ten difference in cluster formation efficiency between the 1–10 Myr and 10–200 Myr intervals depends on the same age estimates. A systematic shift of even a modest fraction of objects across the 10 Myr boundary due to the degeneracy would change the CFE contrast and the interpretation of collision-triggered formation.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Data and sample selection] The manuscript would benefit from explicit statements of the selection criteria used to identify the 211 knots and the six clumps, including any magnitude or color cuts applied to the HST catalog.
  2. [Figures and tables] Figure captions and text should clarify whether the reported masses and ages include formal uncertainties or only best-fit values from the SED fitting.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 1 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive comments on our manuscript. We appreciate the positive assessment of the significance of our work on star clusters in the collisional ring galaxy Arp 147. We address each major comment below, providing clarifications and outlining revisions to strengthen the analysis of uncertainties.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract and age/mass derivation sections] Abstract and results on age-binned statistics: The headline numbers (~60% of knots <10 Myr, Mc = 6.2 × 10^5 M⊙, δ ~ 0.25, CFE ~3% vs ~40%) are derived from ages and masses obtained solely from three-band optical photometry. The abstract itself flags the age-extinction degeneracy for dusty young clusters versus old low-reddening ones, yet no quantitative propagation of this uncertainty into the reported fractions, CMF shape, or derived parameters is provided. This directly affects the reliability of all age-binned conclusions.

    Authors: We agree that a quantitative propagation of the age-extinction degeneracy uncertainties is important for assessing the robustness of our results. Although the manuscript notes this limitation, we will revise the text to include a dedicated analysis of the uncertainties. Using the photometric errors from the three-band data, we will implement Monte Carlo simulations to resample the SED fits and derive distributions for ages and masses. From these, we will compute the impact on the young cluster fraction, the CMF parameters including Mc with uncertainties, the disruption parameter δ, and the CFE values in both age bins. This will be added to the methods and results sections. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [CMF fitting and age function sections] CMF and disruption analysis: The claim that the 10–200 Myr CMF follows a Schechter function with a specific truncation mass, and the derivation of δ ~ 0.25 from the age function, rest on the accuracy of the age assignments and the selection of that subsample. Without error bars on Mc, details of the fitting procedure, or tests of how misclassified ages would alter the functional form, it is unclear whether the deviation from a power law is robust.

    Authors: We acknowledge the need for more details on the fitting and robustness checks. In the revised manuscript, we will expand the CMF section to describe the fitting procedure in full, including the likelihood maximization method used to fit the Schechter function and how the truncation mass Mc was obtained. We will report uncertainties on Mc derived from the fit covariance or bootstrap resampling. Additionally, we will perform tests by randomly shifting ages within estimated uncertainties (accounting for degeneracy) and re-fitting the CMF to evaluate whether the Schechter form remains preferred over a power law. Similar robustness tests will be applied to the age function analysis for δ. revision: yes

  3. Referee: [CFE derivation] CFE calculation: The reported factor-of-ten difference in cluster formation efficiency between the 1–10 Myr and 10–200 Myr intervals depends on the same age estimates. A systematic shift of even a modest fraction of objects across the 10 Myr boundary due to the degeneracy would change the CFE contrast and the interpretation of collision-triggered formation.

    Authors: This point is well taken, as the CFE values are directly tied to the age binning. To address potential misclassifications, the revision will include a sensitivity analysis where we vary the boundary and extinction assumptions to see how the CFE contrast changes. We will report the nominal values along with ranges under different degeneracy scenarios (e.g., assuming young clusters have higher extinction). If the order-of-magnitude difference holds, it bolsters the conclusion regarding collision-triggered formation; we will qualify the interpretation if it does not. This analysis will be incorporated into the CFE section. revision: partial

standing simulated objections not resolved
  • The complete resolution of the age-extinction degeneracy would require additional UV and Hα observations, which are not available in the current dataset. While we can perform sensitivity tests, a full quantitative propagation without new data remains limited.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity; standard observational fits with independent derivations

full rationale

The paper derives cluster ages, masses, CMF shape, disruption rate δ, and CFE directly from HST three-band photometry of 211 knots using established methods (e.g., fitting Schechter function to the 10-200 Myr subsample yielding Mc = 6.2e5 Msun, and extracting δ ~0.25 and CFE values from the age and mass distributions). No equations reduce any reported quantity to its inputs by construction, no fitted parameter is relabeled as a prediction, and no self-citation or ansatz chain is load-bearing. The age-extinction degeneracy is explicitly flagged as a limitation but does not create circularity in the reported steps. The chain remains self-contained against external benchmarks such as standard cluster population synthesis and CMF analysis techniques.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

Central results rest on photometric age and mass estimates derived from three HST bands plus a Schechter fit to the observed mass distribution; the truncation mass is explicitly fitted and the age bins depend on population-synthesis assumptions.

free parameters (1)
  • Schechter truncation mass Mc = 6.2e5 Msun
    Fitted characteristic mass above which the CMF for 10-200 Myr knots declines; value given as 6.2e5 solar masses.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Stellar population synthesis models accurately convert HST F450W/F606W/F814W colors into ages and masses for clusters younger than a few hundred Myr
    Invoked to produce the age and mass catalogs that feed the CMF, age function, and CFE calculations.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5654 in / 1481 out tokens · 50518 ms · 2026-05-10T13:03:01.580137+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

130 extracted references · 130 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    & Bastian, N.\ 2018, The Birth of Star Clusters, The Lifecycle of Clusters in Galaxies, 424, 91

    Adamo, A. & Bastian, N.\ 2018, The Birth of Star Clusters, The Lifecycle of Clusters in Galaxies, 424, 91

    work page 2018

  2. [2]

    Adamo, A., Hollyhead, K., Messa, M., et al.\ 2020a, , 499, 3267

    work page

  3. [3]

    Adamo, A., Kruijssen, J. M. D., Bastian, N., et al.\ 2015, , 452, 246

    work page 2015

  4. [4]

    Adamo, A., \"O stlin, G., & Zackrisson, E.\ 2011, , 417, 3, 1904

    work page 2011

  5. [5]

    Adamo, A., Zeidler, P., Kruijssen, J. M. D., et al.\ 2020b, , 216, 69

    work page

  6. [6]

    C., Fedotov, K., et al.\ 2025, , arXiv:2509.22800

    Aromal, P., Gallagher, S. C., Fedotov, K., et al.\ 2025, , arXiv:2509.22800

    work page arXiv 2025

  7. [7]

    C., Fedotov, K., et al.\ 2025, , 994, 1, 90

    Aromal, P., Gallagher, S. C., Fedotov, K., et al.\ 2025, , 994, 1, 90

    work page 2025

  8. [8]

    & Bosma, A.\ 1985, , 23, 147

    Athanassoula, E. & Bosma, A.\ 1985, , 23, 147

    work page 1985

  9. [9]

    Alvensleben, U., et al.\ 2004, , 347, 196

    Anders, P., Bissantz, N., Fritze-v. Alvensleben, U., et al.\ 2004, , 347, 196

    work page 2004

  10. [10]

    Appleton, P. N. & Marston, A. P.\ 1997, , 113, 201

    work page 1997

  11. [11]

    Appleton, P. N. & Struck-Marcell, C.\ 1987, , 312, 566

    work page 1987

  12. [12]

    Appleton, P. N. & Struck-Marcell, C.\ 1996, , 16, 111

    work page 1996

  13. [13]

    Bastian, N.\ 2008, , 390, 759

    work page 2008

  14. [14]

    Bastian, N., Adamo, A., Gieles, M., et al.\ 2012, , 419, 2606

    work page 2012

  15. [15]

    Bastian, N., Gieles, M., Lamers, H. J. G. L. M., et al.\ 2005, , 431, 905

    work page 2005

  16. [16]

    N., Brandl, B

    Beir \ a o, P., Appleton, P. N., Brandl, B. R., et al.\ 2009, , 693, 1650

    work page 2009

  17. [17]

    & Arnouts, S.\ 1996, , 117, 393

    Bertin, E. & Arnouts, S.\ 1996, , 117, 393

    work page 1996

  18. [18]

    Bigiel, F., Leroy, A., Walter, F., et al.\ 2008, , 136, 2846

    work page 2008

  19. [19]

    Bik, A., Lamers, H. J. G. L. M., Bastian, N., et al.\ 2003, , 397, 473

    work page 2003

  20. [20]

    A., Appleton, P

    Bransford, M. A., Appleton, P. N., Marston, A. P., et al.\ 1998, , 116, 2757

    work page 1998

  21. [21]

    Boutloukos, S. G. & Lamers, H. J. G. L. M.\ 2003, , 338, 717

    work page 2003

  22. [22]

    Burkert, A., Brodie, J., & Larsen, S.\ 2005, , 628, 231

    work page 2005

  23. [23]

    & Crocker, D

    Buta, R. & Crocker, D. A.\ 1993, , 105, 1344

    work page 1993

  24. [24]

    C., et al.\ 2000, , 533, 682

    Calzetti, D., Armus, L., Bohlin, R. C., et al.\ 2000, , 533, 682

    work page 2000

  25. [25]

    C., Sabbi, E., et al.\ 2015, , 149, 51

    Calzetti, D., Lee, J. C., Sabbi, E., et al.\ 2015, , 149, 51

    work page 2015

  26. [26]

    Caputo, M., Chandar, R., Mok, A., et al.\ 2024, , 168, 6, 259

    work page 2024

  27. [27]

    M., Whitmore, B

    Chandar, R., Fall, S. M., Whitmore, B. C., et al.\ 2017, , 849, 128

    work page 2017

  28. [28]

    Chandar, R., Caputo, M., Mok, A., et al.\ 2023, , 949, 116

    work page 2023

  29. [29]

    O., Lee, J

    Cook, D. O., Lee, J. C., Adamo, A., et al.\ 2023, , 519, 3749

    work page 2023

  30. [30]

    O., Seth, A

    Cook, D. O., Seth, A. C., Dale, D. A., et al.\ 2012, , 751, 100

    work page 2012

  31. [31]

    Davies, B., Kudritzki, R.-P., Lardo, C., et al.\ 2017, , 847, 2, 112

    work page 2017

  32. [32]

    de Grijs, R., Anders, P., Bastian, N., et al.\ 2003, , 343, 1285

    work page 2003

  33. [33]

    de Grijs, R., Anders, P., Zackrisson, E., et al.\ 2013, , 431, 2917

    work page 2013

  34. [34]

    G., et al.\ 1991, Sky Telesc., 82, 621

    de Vaucouleurs, G., de Vaucouleurs, A., Corwin, H. G., et al.\ 1991, Sky Telesc., 82, 621

    work page 1991

  35. [35]

    R., Longhetti, M., Fossati, M., et al.\ 2024, , 688, A89

    Ditrani, F. R., Longhetti, M., Fossati, M., et al.\ 2024, , 688, A89

    work page 2024

  36. [36]

    D'Onghia, E., Mapelli, M., & Moore, B.\ 2008, , 389, 1275

    work page 2008

  37. [37]

    V., Kreckel, K., Sandstrom, K

    Egorov, O. V., Kreckel, K., Sandstrom, K. M., et al.\ 2023, , 944, 2, L16

    work page 2023

  38. [38]

    Elagali, A., Lagos, C. D. P., Wong, O. I., et al.\ 2018, , 481, 2951

    work page 2018

  39. [39]

    G.\ 2008, , 672, 1006

    Elmegreen, B. G.\ 2008, , 672, 1006

    work page 2008

  40. [40]

    Elmegreen, B. G. & Efremov, Y. N.\ 1997, , 480, 235

    work page 1997

  41. [41]

    Elmegreen, B. G. & Elmegreen, D. M.\ 2005a, , 627, 632

    work page

  42. [42]

    Elmegreen, D. M. & Elmegreen, B. G.\ 2006, , 651, 676

    work page 2006

  43. [43]

    M., Elmegreen, B

    Elmegreen, D. M., Elmegreen, B. G., Lang, C., et al.\ 1994, , 425, 57

    work page 1994

  44. [44]

    M., Elmegreen, B

    Elmegreen, D. M., Elmegreen, B. G., Rubin, D. S., et al.\ 2005b, , 631, 85

    work page

  45. [45]

    Fabbiano, G.\ 1989, , 27, 87

    work page 1989

  46. [46]

    M., Chandar, R., & Whitmore, B

    Fall, S. M., Chandar, R., & Whitmore, B. C.\ 2005, , 631, L133

    work page 2005

  47. [47]

    C., Fernandes-Martin, V

    Fa \'u ndez-Abans, M., da Rocha-Poppe, P. C., Fernandes-Martin, V. A., et al.\ 2013, , 559, A8

    work page 2013

  48. [48]

    Fogarty, L., Thatte, N., Tecza, M., et al.\ 2011, , 417, 835 (F11)

    work page 2011

  49. [49]

    C., Weisz, D

    Fouesneau, M., Johnson, L. C., Weisz, D. R., et al.\ 2014, , 786, 117

    work page 2014

  50. [50]

    & Lan c on, A.\ 2010, , 521, A22

    Fouesneau, M. & Lan c on, A.\ 2010, , 521, A22

    work page 2010

  51. [51]

    C., Durrell, P

    Gallagher, S. C., Durrell, P. R., Elmegreen, D. M., et al.\ 2010, , 139, 545

    work page 2010

  52. [52]

    D., Appleton, P

    Gao, Y., Wang, Q. D., Appleton, P. N., et al.\ 2003, , 596, L171

    work page 2003

  53. [53]

    Z., Davies, B., Bastian, N., et al.\ 2014, , 787, 2, 142

    Gazak, J. Z., Davies, B., Bastian, N., et al.\ 2014, , 787, 2, 142

    work page 2014

  54. [54]

    Georgakakis, A., Georgantopoulos, I., Vallb \'e , M., et al.\ 2004, , 349, 1, 135

    work page 2004

  55. [55]

    A., Lamb, S

    Gerber, R. A., Lamb, S. A., & Balsara, D. S.\ 1992, , 399, L51

    work page 1992

  56. [56]

    & Seiden, P

    Gerola, H. & Seiden, P. E.\ 1978, , 223, 129

    work page 1978

  57. [57]

    S., Bastian, N., et al.\ 2006, , 450, 129

    Gieles, M., Larsen, S. S., Bastian, N., et al.\ 2006, , 450, 129

    work page 2006

  58. [58]

    Ghosh, K. K. & Mapelli, M.\ 2008, , 386, L38

    work page 2008

  59. [59]

    E., Bastian, N., & Kennicutt, R

    Goddard, Q. E., Bastian, N., & Kennicutt, R. C.\ 2010, , 405, 857

    work page 2010

  60. [60]

    G \'o mez-Gonz \'a lez, V. M. A., Mayya, Y. D., Zaragoza-Cardiel, J., et al.\ 2024, , 529, 4, 4369

    work page 2024

  61. [61]

    L.\ 1995, , 455, 524

    Higdon, J. L.\ 1995, , 455, 524

    work page 1995

  62. [62]

    L.\ 1996, , 467, 241

    Higdon, J. L.\ 1996, , 467, 241

    work page 1996

  63. [63]

    L., Higdon, S

    Higdon, J. L., Higdon, S. J. U., & Rand, R. J.\ 2011, , 739, 97

    work page 2011

  64. [64]

    Hollyhead, K., Adamo, A., Bastian, N., et al.\ 2016, , 460, 2087

    work page 2016

  65. [65]

    Inoue, S., Yoshida, N., & Hernquist, L.\ 2021, , 507, 6140

    work page 2021

  66. [66]

    C., Seth, A

    Johnson, L. C., Seth, A. C., Dalcanton, J. J., et al.\ 2016, , 827, 33

    work page 2016

  67. [67]

    S., et al.\ 2004, , 348, L28

    Kaaret, P., Alonso-Herrero, A., Gallagher, J. S., et al.\ 2004, , 348, L28

    work page 2004

  68. [68]

    P.\ 2017, , 55, 303

    Kaaret, P., Feng, H., & Roberts, T. P.\ 2017, , 55, 303

    work page 2017

  69. [69]

    C.\ 1998, , 36, 189

    Kennicutt, R. C.\ 1998, , 36, 189

    work page 1998

  70. [70]

    Kruijssen, J. M. D.\ 2012, , 426, 3008

    work page 2012

  71. [71]

    Lada, C. J. & Lada, E. A.\ 2003, , 41, 57

    work page 2003

  72. [72]

    H., et al.\ 2020, , 891, 2

    Lah \'e n, N., Naab, T., Johansson, P. H., et al.\ 2020, , 891, 2

    work page 2020

  73. [73]

    S.\ 2009, , 494, 2, 539

    Larsen, S. S.\ 2009, , 494, 2, 539

    work page 2009

  74. [74]

    Larsen, S. S. & Richtler, T.\ 2000, , 354, 836

    work page 2000

  75. [75]

    J., Remijan, A., Charmandaris, V., et al.\ 2004, , 612, 679

    Lavery, R. J., Remijan, A., Charmandaris, V., et al.\ 2004, , 612, 679

    work page 2004

  76. [76]

    Leitherer, C., Ekstr \"o m, S., Meynet, G., et al.\ 2014, , 212, 14

    work page 2014

  77. [77]

    D., et al.\ 1999, , 123, 3

    Leitherer, C., Schaerer, D., Goldader, J. D., et al.\ 1999, , 123, 3

    work page 1999

  78. [78]

    Li, S., de Grijs, R., Anders, P., et al.\ 2015, , 216, 1, 6

    work page 2015

  79. [79]

    T., Evans, A

    Linden, S. T., Evans, A. S., Larson, K., et al.\ 2021, , 923, 278

    work page 2021

  80. [80]

    T., Evans, A

    Linden, S. T., Evans, A. S., Rich, J., et al.\ 2017, , 843, 91

    work page 2017

Showing first 80 references.