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arxiv: 2604.18504 · v2 · submitted 2026-04-20 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

NOEMA3D: Spatially resolved dust, CO, and [C I] in massive star-forming main sequence galaxies at cosmic noon

Jianhang Chen , Linda J. Tacconi , Reinhard Genzel , Roberto Neri , Karl Schuster , Natascha M. F\"orster Schreiber , Jean-Baptiste Jolly , Stavros Pastras
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Letizia Scaloni Giulia Tozzi Capucine Barf\'ety Alberto Bolatto Andreas Burker Fran\c{c}oise Combes Pierre Cox Ric Davies Frank Eisenhauer Juan Manuel Espejo Salcedo Rodrigo Herrera-Camu Santi Garc\'ia-Burillo Tadayuki Kodama Lilian Lee Minju M. Lee Daizhong Liu Dieter Lutz Giovanni Mazzolari Thorsten Naab Amit Nestor Shachar Claudia Pulsoni Alvio Renzini Monica Rubio Taro T. Shimizu Amiel Sternberg Eckhard Sturm Hannah \"Ubler Antonio Usero Stijn Wuyts
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-10 04:19 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords main-sequence galaxiesmolecular gascosmic noonspatially resolvedgas accretionKennicutt-Schmidt lawstar formationNOEMA
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The pith

Main-sequence galaxies at cosmic noon grow via steady gas accretion through spiral arms and bars.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This study maps cold molecular gas and dust in ten massive main-sequence galaxies at redshifts 1.1 to 1.6 using NOEMA observations of CO lines, [C I], and dust continuum. The galaxies show extended gas and dust disks matching the size of their stellar components, with gas fractions and depletion times staying nearly constant across the disks out to twice the effective radius. Resolved correlations between tracers exhibit more scatter than galaxy-wide averages, pointing to clumpy interstellar medium conditions on 3-6 kpc scales. These features, together with regular stellar structures, small bulges, and ordered kinematics, indicate that galaxy evolution proceeds through gradual gas inflow and transport rather than violent mergers.

Core claim

Spatially resolved maps show extended molecular gas and dust distributions comparable to stellar disks in these main-sequence galaxies, unlike central concentrations in starbursts at similar redshifts. CO lines prove most effective for tracing gas distribution and kinematics, while resolved tracer correlations display about twice the scatter of integrated values. Molecular gas fraction and depletion time remain roughly constant out to 2 Re, consistent with a linear Kennicutt-Schmidt law. Combined with ordered cold gas kinematics and regular stellar morphologies, this supports evolution driven by steady gas accretion and transport via prominent spiral arms and/or bars, in contrast to merger-f

What carries the argument

Spatially resolved maps of CO(4-3), CO(3-2), [C I](1-0) emission and dust continuum compared against stellar light and kinematics to trace gas distribution and dynamics.

Load-bearing premise

The ten observed galaxies represent the typical main-sequence population at z=1.1-1.6 and the chosen molecular tracers accurately reflect total cold gas mass and distribution without major biases from excitation conditions or optical depth.

What would settle it

A larger sample of main-sequence galaxies at z~1.5 showing centrally concentrated gas, disturbed kinematics, or varying gas fractions across disks would contradict the steady accretion picture.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.18504 by Alberto Bolatto, Alvio Renzini, Amiel Sternberg, Amit Nestor Shachar, Andreas Burker, Antonio Usero, Capucine Barf\'ety, Claudia Pulsoni, Daizhong Liu, Dieter Lutz, Eckhard Sturm, Fran\c{c}oise Combes, Frank Eisenhauer, Giovanni Mazzolari, Giulia Tozzi, Hannah \"Ubler, Jean-Baptiste Jolly, Jianhang Chen, Juan Manuel Espejo Salcedo, Karl Schuster, Letizia Scaloni, Lilian Lee, Linda J. Tacconi, Minju M. Lee, Monica Rubio, Natascha M. F\"orster Schreiber, Pierre Cox, Reinhard Genzel, Ric Davies, Roberto Neri, Rodrigo Herrera-Camu, Santi Garc\'ia-Burillo, Stavros Pastras, Stijn Wuyts, Tadayuki Kodama, Taro T. Shimizu, Thorsten Naab.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: The spatially resolved maps of CO(4-3), [C i](1-0), and dust continuum for the six galaxies from group-1. For each target, the first column presents the color image constructed from the available broadband HST/JWST data. The subsequent three columns display the intensity maps of CO(4-3), [Ci](1-0), and dust continuum. In these maps, the white contours (start at 5σ) represent starlight from the rest-frame o… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: The spatial resolved maps of CO(3-2) and dust continuum for the galaxies from group-2 (same presentation as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: The bulge+disk modelling of the stellar emission based on the reddest available broadband filter (mostly F444W, except F160W for G4- 38065). For each galaxy, the four columns display the observed stellar emission, the intrinsic bulge+disk model, the model convolved with the PSF, and the residuals after subtracting the best-fit model. We also masked close companions or foreground/background galaxies during … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The radial flux profiles of various observables for NOEMA3D targets. In each panel, the radial profile of each component was normalized by its peak value. The gray shaded area shows the PSF profile. The radius on the bottom x-axis is scaled to the stellar effective radius, while the physical sizes in kiloparsecs (kpc) are displayed along the top x-axis. The radial profiles of the different components are l… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: The global size comparison among different components across various galaxy types is illustrated. Left: Dust size versus molecular gas size, as traced by CO. Middle: Dust size versus stellar size. Right: Molecular gas size versus stellar size. In general, the sizes of dust, molecular gas, and stars in main-sequence (MS) galaxies are comparable. We have included measurements from the literature concerning s… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The LFIR-size relation for dust emission with respect to differ￾ent galaxy types and redshifts is illustrated here. We include the SMGs from Gullberg et al. (2019), the MS galaxies from the CRISTAL sur￾vey (Mitsuhashi et al. 2024), and a mixed sample of MS and SMGs from Tadaki et al. (2020). All galaxies collected in this study have re￾ceived deep continuum observations from modern submillimeter inter￾fero… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: The mass and size related scaling relations of NOEMA3D galaxies. The size measurement is based on the effective radius Re and R80, which represent the radii that encompass 50 percent and 80 percent of the total stellar emission at a rest frame of 5000 Å, respectively. Regarding the mass-size relation based on the effective radius, our sample probes star-forming galaxies with extended disks at z ∼ 1.25 (van… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: The correlation between dust mass surface density and optical stellar attenuation. Left: The radial profiles of the dust mass surface density. The profiles are derived from targets with secure dust detections, assuming a global dust temperature of 25 K and an opacity spectral index of β = 1.8. Right: The correlation between dust mass surface density and the stellar attenuation at different radii. The stell… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: The spatially resolved luminosity is analyzed for three molecular gas tracers: CO(4-3), [C i](1-0), and dust continuum (scaled to 850µm). In each panel, the colored stars represent the integrated ratios, while the colored contours show the resolved luminosities of each tracer from each target. The dashed line illustrates the integrated correlation derived from a large compilation of different samples (Dunn… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: The flux ratios of different cold ISM gas tracers. For the CO(4–3)/[Ci](1-0) ratio, we also present measurements from BX610, another main-sequence galaxy observed with ALMA (Arriagada-Neira et al. 2025). The integrated line ratios for different galaxy types are highlighted with gray shaded regions. Most NOEMA3D galaxies show only mild radial variations at the physical resolution of 3–6 kpc, though their l… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: The normalized radial distribution of molecular gas fraction and its depletion timescale. The colored symbols show the measurements for each galaxy. The open stars show the sample-averaged values. For the group-1 targets, both the molecular gas fraction and the depletion timescale are weighted averages combining all three available tracers. Appendix E.1 shows the results for each individual tracer. All th… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Sketch of different galaxy evolutionary pathways with two distinct accretion modes. Star-forming galaxies supported by semi-steady gas accretion typically remain on the main sequence, with stellar, molecular gas, and dust components of comparable sizes. These galaxies are usually quenched when cold gas accretion terminates, driven by the growth of halo mass. Another subset of star-forming galaxies, primar… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We present a spatially resolved study of cold molecular gas and dust in ten main-sequence galaxies at z=1.1-1.6, using observations of CO(4-3), CO(3-2), [C I](1-0), and dust continuum from the NOEMA3D survey. We find a widely presence of spatially extended molecular gas and dust, with sizes comparable to those of the stellar disk, in contrast to those of central-dominated starburst galaxies at similar redshifts. While various molecular gas tracers generally exhibit similar spatial distributions, the CO line (J=3-2 or J=4-3) remain the most effective for mapping molecular gas distribution and kinematics. In addition, the spatially resolved correlations between different molecular gas tracers exhibit about two times larger scatter than their galactic-integrated correlations, indicating that interstellar medium (ISM) conditions already deviate from global averages on scales of 3-6 kpc, likely reflecting the clumpy or inhomogeneous ISM in cosmic noon star-forming galaxies. Within our sample, both the molecular gas fraction and its depletion time are nearly constant across the galactic disks out to 2 Re, supporting a global linear Kennicutt-Schmidt law. The presence of extended molecular gas disks, along with regular stellar structures, small central bulges, and ordered cold gas kinematics, supports the idea that the evolution of main-sequence disk galaxies at cosmic noon is driven by steady gas accretion and transport through prominent spiral arms and/or bars. This process stands in contrast to the merger-driven stochastic gas accretion in compact starbursts.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 3 minor

Summary. The manuscript reports NOEMA observations of CO(4-3), CO(3-2), [C I](1-0), and dust continuum in ten main-sequence galaxies at z=1.1-1.6. It finds extended molecular gas and dust disks with sizes comparable to the stellar disks (unlike compact starbursts), CO lines as the most reliable tracer, ~2x larger scatter in resolved vs. integrated tracer correlations indicating ISM inhomogeneity on 3-6 kpc scales, and nearly constant molecular gas fractions and depletion times out to 2 R_e supporting a global linear Kennicutt-Schmidt law. These are interpreted as evidence for steady gas accretion and transport via spiral arms/bars driving main-sequence evolution at cosmic noon, in contrast to merger-driven processes.

Significance. If the results hold after detailed verification of data reduction and error propagation, the work supplies important spatially resolved constraints on cold gas in typical (non-starburst) galaxies at cosmic noon. The multi-tracer resolved maps and the reported constancy of gas properties across disks provide direct observational support for secular accretion models over stochastic merger-driven growth, with the noted ISM inhomogeneity offering a useful benchmark for simulations of high-redshift disks.

major comments (2)
  1. The central claim of nearly constant molecular gas fraction and depletion time out to 2 R_e (supporting the linear KS law) requires explicit quantification of how radial profiles are extracted, including any beam-smearing corrections, inclination effects, and the assumed CO-to-H2 conversion factor; without this, it is difficult to assess robustness against the acknowledged ISM inhomogeneity on 3-6 kpc scales.
  2. The interpretation that ordered kinematics and regular stellar structures indicate steady accretion rather than mergers rests on the sample being representative; the manuscript should include a direct comparison of the ten galaxies' properties (e.g., stellar mass, SFR, size) to larger z~1.5 main-sequence samples from surveys such as PHIBSS or 3D-HST to address potential selection biases in NOEMA-detectable targets.
minor comments (3)
  1. Abstract: 'widely presence' should read 'widespread presence'.
  2. Ensure all figure captions explicitly label the different molecular tracers, radial scales in kpc, and any beam sizes for clarity.
  3. The discussion of tracer reliability would benefit from a table summarizing the spatial extent and kinematic regularity metrics for each of the ten galaxies.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their positive assessment and constructive comments, which will improve the clarity and robustness of our manuscript. We address each major comment point by point below and will revise the manuscript accordingly.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: The central claim of nearly constant molecular gas fraction and depletion time out to 2 R_e (supporting the linear KS law) requires explicit quantification of how radial profiles are extracted, including any beam-smearing corrections, inclination effects, and the assumed CO-to-H2 conversion factor; without this, it is difficult to assess robustness against the acknowledged ISM inhomogeneity on 3-6 kpc scales.

    Authors: We agree that additional methodological details are needed to substantiate the radial constancy claim. In the revised manuscript, we will add a dedicated subsection to the Methods section that explicitly quantifies the radial profile extraction procedure. This will include: (i) the azimuthal averaging and radial binning approach, (ii) beam-smearing corrections derived from the NOEMA beam size and source extent, (iii) inclination corrections based on kinematic modeling of the CO velocity fields, and (iv) the adopted CO-to-H2 conversion factor with justification and tests for variations. We will further demonstrate robustness by showing that the near-constant molecular gas fraction and depletion time persist within the uncertainties even when incorporating the factor-of-two larger scatter from ISM inhomogeneity on 3-6 kpc scales. These additions will allow a clearer evaluation of support for the global linear Kennicutt-Schmidt law. revision: yes

  2. Referee: The interpretation that ordered kinematics and regular stellar structures indicate steady accretion rather than mergers rests on the sample being representative; the manuscript should include a direct comparison of the ten galaxies' properties (e.g., stellar mass, SFR, size) to larger z~1.5 main-sequence samples from surveys such as PHIBSS or 3D-HST to address potential selection biases in NOEMA-detectable targets.

    Authors: We acknowledge the value of explicitly demonstrating sample representativeness to support our interpretation of steady accretion. In the revised manuscript, we will include a new figure and accompanying text that directly compares the stellar masses, star formation rates, effective radii, and specific SFRs of our ten galaxies to the distributions from the PHIBSS survey and 3D-HST catalogs for main-sequence galaxies at z=1.1-1.6. This will show that our NOEMA targets are broadly representative of the typical population, with no strong selection bias toward systems with ordered kinematics or extended disks. Any minor differences will be discussed in the context of generalizing our conclusions on secular versus merger-driven evolution. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity: purely observational study with direct measurements

full rationale

The paper reports spatially resolved NOEMA observations of CO, [CI], and dust in ten z=1.1-1.6 main-sequence galaxies. All load-bearing statements (extended gas disks comparable to stellar disks, near-constant gas fractions and depletion times out to 2 Re, larger scatter in resolved vs. integrated correlations, ordered kinematics) are direct empirical results from the data cubes and maps. No equations, fitted parameters, or predictions are defined within the paper and then re-used as outputs. No self-citation chain is invoked to justify a uniqueness theorem or ansatz; the interpretive conclusion about steady accretion versus mergers follows from the contrast between the observed regular disk properties and the known properties of starbursts, without reducing to prior author work by construction. The derivation chain is therefore self-contained against external benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on standard astrophysical assumptions about molecular gas tracers and sample selection rather than new free parameters or invented entities.

axioms (2)
  • domain assumption CO line intensities can be converted to molecular hydrogen masses using standard conversion factors
    Implicit in deriving gas masses and depletion times from the observed lines.
  • domain assumption The ten galaxies form a representative sample of main-sequence galaxies at z=1.1-1.6
    Required for generalizing the findings to the broader population.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5779 in / 1547 out tokens · 56430 ms · 2026-05-10T04:19:45.900587+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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Forward citations

Cited by 1 Pith paper

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score.

  1. NOEMA3D: Resolving radial gas flows in disk galaxies at z~1.1-1.6 with high-resolution CO observations

    astro-ph.GA 2026-04 unverdicted novelty 6.0

    High-resolution molecular gas observations show that spiral arms and bars in z~1.5 disk galaxies drive substantial radial inflows at rates matching star formation, linking morphology directly to gas transport.

Reference graph

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