Glass-based physical models for tissue mechanics

Carolyn Delli-Santi; Gopika Madhu; Jenna Efrein; Landolf Rhode-Barbarigos; Prannoy Suraneni; Vivek N. Prakash

arxiv: 2606.22281 · v1 · pith:ORUPJ6SLnew · submitted 2026-06-21 · ⚛️ physics.bio-ph · cond-mat.soft· q-bio.TO

Glass-based physical models for tissue mechanics

Gopika Madhu , Carolyn Delli-Santi , Jenna Efrein , Prannoy Suraneni , Landolf Rhode-Barbarigos , Vivek N. Prakash This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-26 09:54 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.bio-ph cond-mat.softq-bio.TO

keywords glass physical modelstissue mechanicsTrichoplax adhaerensepithelial tissue deformationtensegrity modelingphysical analogductile brittle transitioninterdisciplinary modeling

0 comments

The pith

Glass stretched at process temperature models large deformations in Trichoplax adhaerens tissue.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The authors establish that glass art techniques can create physical models of tissue monolayers for studying mechanical deformation. They heat glass, stretch it under controlled conditions, and cool it to capture strain states similar to those in T. adhaerens under load. This platform allows quantification of cell area and eccentricity changes, and comparison with tensegrity simulations. The work connects fabrication methods from the arts to biological mechanics questions. Such models offer an experimentally accessible alternative to direct tissue experiments.

Core claim

Glass-based physical models, formed by shaping glass into monolayers, heating to process temperature, and stretching, arrest deformed configurations upon cooling that replicate the large deformations and increased eccentricity seen in T. adhaerens epithelial tissues. Tensegrity-based models capture the principal experimental deformation patterns but underestimate the magnitude of eccentricity changes.

What carries the argument

Heating and stretching glass at its process temperature to produce tunable, arrestable tissue-like strain states, validated against tensegrity simulations of cellular geometry.

If this is right

Area and eccentricity of individual cells increase under lateral and radial stretching.
The models reproduce ductile-to-brittle transitions at fast loading rates.
Tensegrity models can be used to quantify and compare deformations with experiments.
Interdisciplinary art and science methods enable new studies of tissue-scale mechanics.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

The approach may allow testing of mechanical hypotheses without using live organisms initially.
Similar physical modeling could apply to other simple tissues or organisms exhibiting large deformations.
Further refinement of the tensegrity model might better match the observed eccentricity magnitudes.

Load-bearing premise

The mechanical response of heated and stretched glass at its process temperature is sufficiently similar to the epithelial tissue of T. adhaerens to serve as a valid analog for large deformations and eccentricity changes.

What would settle it

If measurements on actual T. adhaerens show no increase in eccentricity or no ductile-to-brittle transition matching the glass model behaviors under comparable stretch rates and geometries.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.22281 by Carolyn Delli-Santi, Gopika Madhu, Jenna Efrein, Landolf Rhode-Barbarigos, Prannoy Suraneni, Vivek N. Prakash.

**Figure 1.** Figure 1: Tissue deformation in Trichoplax adhaerens and glass “tissue” models. (A) Asexual reproduction in T. adhaerens occurs through ductile deformation (tissue thinning) followed by binary fission. (B) Tissue fracture and subsequent healing in T. adhaerens. Images in A and B are adapted and reproduced from reference [7]. (C) Glass “tissue” monolayer. Inset (D) shows zoom-in views of individual “cells” in the gla… view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Figure 2: Fabrication and stretching of glass “tissue” monolayers. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_2.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Figure 3: Lateral stretching and image analysis of glass “tissue” monolayers. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_3.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Radial–uniaxial deformation and image analysis of glass “tissue” [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_4.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: Experimental cell geometries used as inputs for the tensegrity model. [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_5.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: Quantification of cell-scale deformation in glass “tissue” monolayers [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_6.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: Comparison between model predictions and experimental deformation [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_7.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: Model-based quantification of cell-scale deformation under uniaxial [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_8.png] view at source ↗

read the original abstract

Techniques from glass art and fabrication provide a controllable physical platform for studying tissue mechanics in simple organisms. Here, we use glass-based physical models to investigate tissue deformation in the marine organism Trichoplax adhaerens. Previous studies have shown that the epithelial tissues in T. adhaerens undergo large deformations and form fracture holes under mechanical loading, exhibiting a ductile-to-brittle transition at fast loading rates. To model these behaviors in a tunable and experimentally accessible system, glass is shaped into tissue-like monolayers in a glass studio, heated to its specific process temperature, and subjected to controlled stretching. Rapid cooling arrests the deformed configurations, providing snapshots of tissue-like strain states under load. Under lateral and radial stretching, we quantify changes in the area and eccentricity of individual "cells" in the glass models, and found that eccentricity increases after stretching. We further use tensegrity-based models to quantify deformations in the cellular geometry of the glass tissues, enabling direct comparison between experiments and simulations. The model captures the principal experimental deformation patterns, but underestimates the magnitude of the observed eccentricity changes. Our results demonstrate that glass-based physical models provide an experimentally accessible platform for studying tissue-scale deformation and mechanical behavior, while supporting interdisciplinary approaches that connect methods in the arts and sciences.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Desk Editor's Note private letter to a colleague

Glass fabrication gives a simple physical analog for stretching tissue-like monolayers in T. adhaerens, with directional agreement to tensegrity models but limited evidence on how close the mechanics actually are.

read the letter

The core contribution is a new physical platform: glass is formed into cell-like sheets in a studio, heated, stretched under controlled conditions, and quenched to freeze the deformed state. They measure eccentricity and area changes in the individual cells and compare the results to tensegrity simulations that recover the main pattern but under-predict the size of the eccentricity shift.

The approach is genuinely useful for accessibility. Standard glass-working tools let them tune thickness, temperature, and stretch rate without needing live-cell culture or specialized equipment. The rapid-cool step gives clean snapshots that are easy to image and quantify, and the art-science link is a practical way to bring new fabrication skills into the lab.

The main limitation is the strength of the analogy. The abstract motivates the work with T. adhaerens ductile-to-brittle behavior but does not report any direct comparison of glass rheology at process temperature to the tissue's viscoelastic response. The noted mismatch in magnitude is left without error bars, sample sizes, or discussion of possible causes, so it is hard to judge whether the platform reproduces the right physics or just a loose geometric resemblance.

This is worth reading for groups already building physical analogs in biomechanics or soft-matter labs that want a low-cost, tunable system. It is less likely to interest people focused on quantitative cell mechanics or in-vivo validation.

I would send it to referees. The method is concrete enough to be reproduced and the directional results are clear, even if the biological mapping needs tightening.

Referee Report

1 major / 0 minor

Summary. The manuscript claims that glass-based physical models fabricated as tissue-like monolayers, heated to process temperature, stretched under controlled lateral/radial conditions, and rapidly cooled to arrest deformed states, constitute an experimentally accessible platform for studying tissue-scale deformations and mechanical behavior in Trichoplax adhaerens. Experiments quantify increases in cell eccentricity after stretching; tensegrity simulations capture the principal deformation patterns but underestimate the magnitude of eccentricity changes. The work positions the approach as enabling interdisciplinary connections between glass art methods and biological mechanics.

Significance. If the platform's mechanical analogy and experimental accessibility are established, the approach could provide a tunable physical system for investigating large deformations, area changes, and ductile-to-brittle transitions without sole reliance on biological samples, while opening avenues for arts-sciences collaboration in tissue mechanics.

major comments (1)

[Abstract] Abstract: The abstract reports directional findings (eccentricity increases after stretching; simulations capture patterns but underestimate magnitude) but supplies no quantitative data, error bars, sample sizes, statistical tests, or exclusion criteria. This makes it impossible to evaluate the strength of evidence for the central claim that the glass models form a usable platform.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their feedback. We address the single major comment below and agree that the abstract requires strengthening with quantitative details.

read point-by-point responses

Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The abstract reports directional findings (eccentricity increases after stretching; simulations capture patterns but underestimate magnitude) but supplies no quantitative data, error bars, sample sizes, statistical tests, or exclusion criteria. This makes it impossible to evaluate the strength of evidence for the central claim that the glass models form a usable platform.

Authors: We agree that the abstract, as written, provides only directional statements and omits the quantitative metrics needed to assess evidence strength. The body of the manuscript reports these values (cell eccentricity changes with standard deviations, sample sizes for cells and models, and direct experiment-simulation comparisons), but they were not summarized in the abstract. We will revise the abstract to include representative quantitative results, such as the observed average eccentricity increase under lateral and radial stretching, associated variability, sample sizes, and any statistical comparisons performed. This change will allow readers to evaluate the platform claim directly from the abstract while preserving the manuscript's overall length and focus. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity detected

full rationale

The paper describes an experimental fabrication and stretching protocol for glass monolayers, followed by direct quantification of cell eccentricity and area changes, with comparison to separate tensegrity simulations that reproduce qualitative patterns. No load-bearing step reduces by definition, by fitted-parameter renaming, or by self-citation chain to its own inputs; the platform claim follows from the reported physical procedures and measurements without circular equivalence.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

Based solely on the abstract, the central claim rests on the untested premise that glass at process temperature behaves mechanically like epithelial tissue; no free parameters, axioms, or invented entities are explicitly introduced or quantified in the provided text.

axioms (1)

domain assumption Heated glass at its specific process temperature deforms in a manner analogous to biological epithelial tissue under mechanical loading.
Invoked implicitly to justify the platform as a model for T. adhaerens tissue deformation (abstract).

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5781 in / 1209 out tokens · 25139 ms · 2026-06-26T09:54:13.742169+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

33 extracted references · 5 canonical work pages

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Motility-induced fracture reveals a ductile-to-brittle crossover in a simple animal’s epithelia

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work page doi:10.1073/pnas.1010059108 2011
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A fluid-to-solid jamming transition underlies vertebrate body axis elongation

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Delli-Santi JE. A Novel Study of Trichoplax adhaerens Tissue Strain Using Hot and Kiln Formed Glass Processes [Master’s thesis]. University of Miami; 2023

2023
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Glass, Marine Biology, and Physics

Efrein J, Delli-Santi C, Prakash VN. Glass, Marine Biology, and Physics. Glass Arts Society Journal. 2023; p. 49–51

2023
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Analysis of clustered tensegrity structures using a modified dynamic relaxation algorithm

Ali NBH, Rhode-Barbarigos L, Smith IFC. Analysis of clustered tensegrity structures using a modified dynamic relaxation algorithm. International Journal of Solids and Structures. 2011;48:637–647

2011
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Rhinoceros 3D; 2026

Robert McNeel & Associates. Rhinoceros 3D; 2026. Available from: https://www.rhino3d.com

2026
[26]

Generation of planar tensegrity structures through cellular multiplication

Aloui O, Orden D, Rhode-Barbarigos L. Generation of planar tensegrity structures through cellular multiplication. Applied Mathematical Modelling. 2018;64:71–92

2018
[27]

A method for the automatic evaluation of the dynamic relaxation parameters

Papadrakakis M. A method for the automatic evaluation of the dynamic relaxation parameters. Computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering. 1981;25(1):35–48

1981
[28]

Experimental testing of a tensegrity simplex: self-stress implementation and static loading

Feron J, Rhode-Barbarigos L, Latteur P. Experimental testing of a tensegrity simplex: self-stress implementation and static loading. journal of structural engineering. 2023;149(7):04023073

2023
[29]

A theoretical framework for sensor placement, structural identification and damage detection in tensegrity structures

Aloui O, Lin J, Rhode-Barbarigos L. A theoretical framework for sensor placement, structural identification and damage detection in tensegrity structures. Smart Materials and Structures. 2019;28(12):125004

2019
[30]

Multi-objective optimization of polyester-rope and steel-rope suspended footbridges

Segal EM, Rhode-Barbarigos L, Adriaenssens S, Coelho RDF. Multi-objective optimization of polyester-rope and steel-rope suspended footbridges. Engineering structures. 2015;99:559–567

2015
[31]

Dynamic relaxation study and experimental verification of dielectric-elastomer minimum-energy structures

Siu S, Rhode-Barbarigos L, Wagner S, Adriaenssens S. Dynamic relaxation study and experimental verification of dielectric-elastomer minimum-energy structures. Applied Physics Letters. 2013;103(17)

2013
[32]

Modeling Tissue Mechanics with Molten Glass

Berkowitz R. Modeling Tissue Mechanics with Molten Glass. Physics. 2024;17:55

2024
[33]

cells” with consistent height and diameter. June 23, 2026 18/21 Glass “cells

Madhu G, Delli-Santi C, Efrein J, Suraneni P, Nagendra Prakash V. Glass Art, Physics, and Marine Biology: Outreach using the Glass Shop as a Laboratory for Tissue Biophysics in Marine Animals. In: APS March Meeting Abstracts. vol. 2024; 2024. p. N61–004. June 23, 2026 17/21 Supporting information All colored glass used in this study was purchased from Oly...

2024

[1] [1]

Biomechanics: Motion, Flow, Stress, and Growth

Fung Y. Biomechanics: Motion, Flow, Stress, and Growth. Springer; 1990

1990

[2] [2]

Tissue mechanics, an important regulator of development and disease

Ayad NME, Kaushik S, Weaver VM. Tissue mechanics, an important regulator of development and disease. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,20180215, 374, 1779. 2019

2019

[3] [3]

Mechanics of epithelial tissue homeostasis and morphogenesis

Guillot C, Lecuit T. Mechanics of epithelial tissue homeostasis and morphogenesis. Science. 2013;340(6137):1185–1189. June 23, 2026 15/21

2013

[4] [4]

Characterizing the mechanics of cultured cell monolayers

Harris AR, Peter L, Bellis J, Baum B, Kabla AJ, Charras GT. Characterizing the mechanics of cultured cell monolayers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2012;109(41):16449–16454. doi:10.1073/pnas.1213301109

work page doi:10.1073/pnas.1213301109 2012

[5] [5]

Unjamming and cell shape in the asthmatic airway epithelium

Park JA, Kim JH, Bi D, Mitchel JA, Qazvini NT, Tantisira K, et al. Unjamming and cell shape in the asthmatic airway epithelium. Nature materials. 2015;14(10):1040–1048

2015

[6] [6]

Field biology of placozoans (Trichoplax): distribution, diversity, biotic interactions

Pearse VB, Voigt O. Field biology of placozoans (Trichoplax): distribution, diversity, biotic interactions. Integrative and Comparative Biology. 2007;47(5):677–692. doi:10.1093/icb/icm015

work page doi:10.1093/icb/icm015 2007

[7] [7]

Motility-induced fracture reveals a ductile-to-brittle crossover in a simple animal’s epithelia

Prakash VN, Bull MS, Prakash M. Motility-induced fracture reveals a ductile-to-brittle crossover in a simple animal’s epithelia. Nature Physics. 2021;17(4):504–511

2021

[8] [8]

Novel Cell Types, Neurosecretory Cells, and Body Plan of the Early-Diverging Metazoan Trichoplax adhaerens

Smith C, Varoqueaux F, Kittelmann M, Azzam R, Cooper B, Winters C, et al. Novel Cell Types, Neurosecretory Cells, and Body Plan of the Early-Diverging Metazoan Trichoplax adhaerens. Current Biology. 2014;24(14):1565–1572. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.05.046

work page doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.05.046 2014

[9] [9]

Ultrafast epithelial contractions provide insights into contraction speed limits and tissue integrity

Armon S, Bull MS, Aranda-Diaz A, Prakash M. Ultrafast epithelial contractions provide insights into contraction speed limits and tissue integrity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2018;115(44):E10333–E10341. doi:10.1073/pnas.1802934115

work page doi:10.1073/pnas.1802934115 2018

[10] [10]

Coordinated feeding behavior in Trichoplax, an animal without synapses

Smith CL, Pivovarova N, Reese TS. Coordinated feeding behavior in Trichoplax, an animal without synapses. PloS one. 2015;10(9):e0136098

2015

[11] [11]

Quantifying Ciliary-Generated Traction Forces During Locomotion in a Simple Marine Animal’s Epithelial Tissues

Madhu G, McCord M, Spencer J, Kafkis K, Notbohm J, Prakash VN. Quantifying Ciliary-Generated Traction Forces During Locomotion in a Simple Marine Animal’s Epithelial Tissues. In: SEM Annual Conference and Exposition on Experimental and Applied Mechanics. Springer; 2024. p. 83–88

2024

[12] [12]

Non-bilaterians as model systems for tissue mechanics

Gooshvar S, Madhu G, Ruszczyk M, Prakash VN. Non-bilaterians as model systems for tissue mechanics. Integrative and comparative biology. 2023;63(6):1442–1454

2023

[13] [13]

The cell as a material

Kasza KE, Rowat AC, Liu J, Angelini TE, Brangwynne CP, Koenderink GH, et al. The cell as a material. Current opinion in cell biology. 2007;19(1):101–107

2007

[14] [14]

Glass-like dynamics of collective cell migration

Angelini TE, Hannezo E, Trepat X, Marquez M, Fredberg JJ, Weitz DA. Glass-like dynamics of collective cell migration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2011;108(12):4714–4719. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010059108

work page doi:10.1073/pnas.1010059108 2011

[15] [15]

A density-independent rigidity transition in biological tissues

Bi D, Lopez J, Schwarz JM, Manning ML. A density-independent rigidity transition in biological tissues. Nature Physics. 2015;11(12):1074–1079

2015

[16] [16]

A fluid-to-solid jamming transition underlies vertebrate body axis elongation

Mongera A, Rowghanian P, Gustafson HJ, Shelton E, Kealhofer DA, Carn EK, et al. A fluid-to-solid jamming transition underlies vertebrate body axis elongation. Nature. 2018;561(7723):401–405

2018

[17] [17]

How glass changed the world

Rasmussen SC. How glass changed the world. vol. 3. Springer; 2012

2012

[18] [18]

Dependence of the glass transition temperature on heating and cooling rate

Moynihan CT, Easteal AJ, Wilder J, Tucker J. Dependence of the glass transition temperature on heating and cooling rate. The journal of physical chemistry. 1974;78(26):2673–2677. June 23, 2026 16/21

1974

[19] [19]

Glass: nature, structure, and properties

Scholze H. Glass: nature, structure, and properties. Springer Science & Business Media; 2012

2012

[20] [20]

Theoretical perspective on the glass transition and amorphous materials

Berthier L, Biroli G. Theoretical perspective on the glass transition and amorphous materials. Reviews of modern physics. 2011;83(2):587–645

2011

[21] [21]

Introduction to glass science and technology

Shelby JE. Introduction to glass science and technology. Royal society of chemistry; 2020

2020

[22] [22]

A Novel Study of Trichoplax adhaerens Tissue Strain Using Hot and Kiln Formed Glass Processes [Master’s thesis]

Delli-Santi JE. A Novel Study of Trichoplax adhaerens Tissue Strain Using Hot and Kiln Formed Glass Processes [Master’s thesis]. University of Miami; 2023

2023

[23] [23]

Glass, Marine Biology, and Physics

Efrein J, Delli-Santi C, Prakash VN. Glass, Marine Biology, and Physics. Glass Arts Society Journal. 2023; p. 49–51

2023

[24] [24]

Analysis of clustered tensegrity structures using a modified dynamic relaxation algorithm

Ali NBH, Rhode-Barbarigos L, Smith IFC. Analysis of clustered tensegrity structures using a modified dynamic relaxation algorithm. International Journal of Solids and Structures. 2011;48:637–647

2011

[25] [25]

Rhinoceros 3D; 2026

Robert McNeel & Associates. Rhinoceros 3D; 2026. Available from: https://www.rhino3d.com

2026

[26] [26]

Generation of planar tensegrity structures through cellular multiplication

Aloui O, Orden D, Rhode-Barbarigos L. Generation of planar tensegrity structures through cellular multiplication. Applied Mathematical Modelling. 2018;64:71–92

2018

[27] [27]

A method for the automatic evaluation of the dynamic relaxation parameters

Papadrakakis M. A method for the automatic evaluation of the dynamic relaxation parameters. Computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering. 1981;25(1):35–48

1981

[28] [28]

Experimental testing of a tensegrity simplex: self-stress implementation and static loading

Feron J, Rhode-Barbarigos L, Latteur P. Experimental testing of a tensegrity simplex: self-stress implementation and static loading. journal of structural engineering. 2023;149(7):04023073

2023

[29] [29]

A theoretical framework for sensor placement, structural identification and damage detection in tensegrity structures

Aloui O, Lin J, Rhode-Barbarigos L. A theoretical framework for sensor placement, structural identification and damage detection in tensegrity structures. Smart Materials and Structures. 2019;28(12):125004

2019

[30] [30]

Multi-objective optimization of polyester-rope and steel-rope suspended footbridges

Segal EM, Rhode-Barbarigos L, Adriaenssens S, Coelho RDF. Multi-objective optimization of polyester-rope and steel-rope suspended footbridges. Engineering structures. 2015;99:559–567

2015

[31] [31]

Dynamic relaxation study and experimental verification of dielectric-elastomer minimum-energy structures

Siu S, Rhode-Barbarigos L, Wagner S, Adriaenssens S. Dynamic relaxation study and experimental verification of dielectric-elastomer minimum-energy structures. Applied Physics Letters. 2013;103(17)

2013

[32] [32]

Modeling Tissue Mechanics with Molten Glass

Berkowitz R. Modeling Tissue Mechanics with Molten Glass. Physics. 2024;17:55

2024

[33] [33]

cells” with consistent height and diameter. June 23, 2026 18/21 Glass “cells

Madhu G, Delli-Santi C, Efrein J, Suraneni P, Nagendra Prakash V. Glass Art, Physics, and Marine Biology: Outreach using the Glass Shop as a Laboratory for Tissue Biophysics in Marine Animals. In: APS March Meeting Abstracts. vol. 2024; 2024. p. N61–004. June 23, 2026 17/21 Supporting information All colored glass used in this study was purchased from Oly...

2024