Pith. sign in

REVIEW 2 major objections 4 minor 1 cited by

Globular cluster abundance patterns inherited from giant molecular clouds

T0 review · 2 major / 4 minor · reviewed 2026-07-11 · grok-4.5

Challenge this review Re-run · record.json Download PDF Read on arXiv ↗

Pith's one-line read Globular cluster light-element patterns can be inherited at birth from chemically structured giant molecular clouds shaped by galactic gas flows, without extended in-cluster self-enrichment.

desk verdict Solid simulation result: standard-yield cosmological runs produce massive GMCs with GC-like N–O anticorrelations and low Fe scatter via post-starburst inflow collisions; Na is missing and z=0 survival is unresolved, but the inheritance channel is real and worth engaging. read the letter →

arxiv 2607.05509 v1 pith:UQLY6KQR submitted 2026-07-06 astro-ph.GA astro-ph.SR

William McClymont , Vasily Belokurov , Sandro Tacchella , Rahul Kannan , Aaron Smith , Ewald Puchwein , Enrico Garaldi , Mark Vogelsberger
show 11 more authors
Stephanie Monty Josh Borrow Laura Keating Xuejian Shen Zihao Wang Oliver Zier Changhyun Cho Yuki Isobe Xihan Ji Roberto Maiolino Giulia Pruto
This is my paper
classification astro-ph.GAastro-ph.SR
keywords globularclustersgiantmolecularcloudschemicalabundancesnitrogen-oxygenanticorrelationbaryoncyclehigh-redshiftgalaxiesstarclusterformationself-enrichment
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

Globular clusters show large star-to-star spreads and anticorrelations in light elements such as nitrogen and oxygen, almost always at nearly constant iron. The usual explanation is self-enrichment inside the cluster over many millions of years, but those models face a severe mass-budget problem or need exotic stars. This paper uses cosmological radiation-hydrodynamic simulations with ordinary chemical yields and finds giant molecular clouds that already carry the same abundance signatures. The clouds form when oxygen-rich gas ejected in an earlier starburst falls back and collides with nitrogen-rich gas left after the galaxy briefly quenches, then become sites of dense star-cluster formation. If the picture is right, the famous GC chemistry is a birth imprint of the high-redshift baryon cycle rather than a product of long internal pollution, and the clusters themselves become fossils of early galaxy gas flows.

What carries the argument

Inflow-driven GMC formation after a burst-lull cycle: oxygen-rich core-collapse ejecta leave the shallow potential, AGB stars continue to enrich the remaining gas with nitrogen while the galaxy is temporarily quenched, and the returning oxygen-rich inflow collides with that nitrogen-rich gas, compressing massive clouds that mix both abundances and imprint N–O anticorrelations at fixed iron.

What would settle it

Obtain ages and light-element abundances for very young (less than about 1 Myr) high-redshift GC progenitors: inheritance predicts anomalous chemistry already present and star formation ending within roughly 3–5 Myr before iron spreads appear; extended multi-generation formation with delayed pollution would favor classical self-enrichment.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

Cosmological radiation-hydrodynamic simulations with a standard chemical enrichment model produce a population of giant molecular clouds whose internal abundances already match several defining globular-cluster signatures: large light-element spreads and nitrogen–oxygen anticorrelations at nearly constant iron. These clouds form at the restart of star formation after a starburst, where previously ejected oxygen-rich gas collides with nitrogen-rich galactic gas, and they are the sites of dense star-cluster formation. The chemical patterns of globular clusters can therefore be inherited at birth from chemically structured interstellar gas shaped by the baryon cycle.

Load-bearing premise

The argument assumes that chemically selected birth clouds with the right light-element spreads will, after unresolved long-term dynamical evolution and without tracked sodium, still yield the full observed properties of present-day globular clusters.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • GC abundance patterns need not require extended in-cluster star formation or exotic polluters.
  • Highly nitrogen-rich high-redshift galaxies are likely sites of ongoing GC formation via the same baryon-cycle process.
  • GCs form on short timescales (about 3–5 Myr) and avoid the mass-budget problem because both abundance groups form together from already mixed gas.
  • GCs become a fossil record of chemical enrichment and gas flows in high-redshift galaxies.
  • Some nitrogen-rich field stars may form outside clusters from diffuse nitrogen-rich gas rather than only from dissolved GCs.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Abundance-spread size should scale with parent GMC mass and with the surface density of the resulting bound cluster, even among still-forming high-redshift systems.
  • Because sodium is produced with nitrogen in AGB stars, the same collision channel should also produce the Na–O anticorrelation once sodium is tracked.
  • Mildly nitrogen-rich galaxies may lack GC-like clouds if their burst-lull cycles are too weak, giving a chemical diagnostic of burst strength.
  • Resolved long-term evolution to z=0 is still required to check whether the dense clusters survive with the correct mass function and without forced preferential stripping of one abundance group.
Share X Bluesky LinkedIn Reddit HN

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

2 major / 4 minor

Summary. The manuscript uses the THESAN-ZOOM cosmological radiation-hydrodynamic suite (standard nine-element enrichment) to identify a chemically selected population of giant molecular clouds that exhibit large log(N/O) spreads, [N/Fe]–[O/Fe] anticorrelations, and low iron dispersion. These GC-like GMCs form preferentially when oxygen-rich gas ejected by a prior starburst re-accretes and collides with nitrogen-rich galactic gas left by AGB enrichment during a temporary quench; they are more massive than ordinary GMCs, appear at early times and low metallicity consistent with MW GCs, and host dense bound star clusters with surface densities comparable to observed GCs. The authors conclude that key GC light-element patterns can be inherited at birth from baryon-cycle-structured ISM rather than requiring extended in-cluster self-enrichment, thereby avoiding the mass-budget problem and exotic polluters.

Significance. If the inheritance channel holds, it reframes GC multiple populations as a fossil of high-redshift gas flows and stochastic star-formation histories rather than an internal cluster process. The work is grounded in self-consistent cosmological simulations with a standard yield set, supplies a concrete formation pathway (re-accretion after mini-quenching), links the chemically selected clouds to dense cluster formation, and offers falsifiable predictions (formation timescales ≲3–5 Myr; GC-like chemistry in young high-z clusters and in galaxies quenched for ≳50 Myr). These are genuine strengths that make the paper a valuable contribution even if sodium remains untracked.

major comments (2)
  1. [Discussion after Fig. 4; Methods (chemical network)] The central claim is that GC abundance patterns can be inherited at birth. The paper demonstrates N–O anticorrelation and low Fe dispersion inside the selected GMCs (Fig. 3; Methods chemical cuts Δlog(N/O)>0.5, r([N/Fe],[O/Fe])<−0.3, σ[Fe/H]<0.1). Sodium is absent from the nine-element network, so the Na–O anticorrelation is asserted only by chemical analogy (“sodium is produced alongside nitrogen in AGB stars through the NeNa cycle… we expect”). Because Na–O is a defining GC signature and self-enrichment models already reproduce it, the inheritance scenario remains incomplete until the complementary Na contrast between the re-accreted O-rich and residual N-rich gas is shown (or a quantitative yield-based argument is supplied). This is the single load-bearing gap.
  2. [Methods (Star cluster identification); Discussion] Long-term dynamical evolution of the dense clusters is unresolved (stellar softening lengths 138–554 cpc; Methods). Figure 4 shows that chemically selected birth gas can form bound systems with Σ_* ≳700 M_⊙ pc^{-2} and M_* ≳10^5 M_⊙, but survival to z=0, mass loss, and the final GC mass function are not demonstrated. The paper correctly flags this limitation; a clearer statement of which present-day GC properties are predicted versus which remain open is needed so that the inheritance claim is not over-read as already producing the full z=0 GC population.
minor comments (4)
  1. [Methods: GMC identification and GC-like GMC selection] The free parameters of the GC-like selection (Δlog(N/O)>0.5, Pearson r<−0.3, σ[Fe/H]<0.1) and of CloudPhinder (α_max=20) should be stated more prominently in the main text or a table, with a short sensitivity check, so readers can judge robustness without digging into Methods.
  2. [Results / Extended Data] Extended Data Figures 5–7 are useful but the main text could briefly note that the N–O anticorrelation appears across all three resolution levels, strengthening the claim that the pattern is not a resolution artefact.
  3. [Fig. 4 caption and surrounding text] The surface-density threshold Σ_*≈700 M_⊙ pc^{-2} used to split chemical behaviour in Fig. 4 is described as “defined to split”; a short justification relative to observed GC densities or prior simulation thresholds would help.
  4. [Abstract / title block] A few typographical issues remain (e.g., missing spaces in “Globularclusters”, “star-to-starvariations” in the abstract/preprint header). A careful proof-read of the compiled PDF is warranted.

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged · score 2.0 of 10

GC-like GMCs are chemically selected by construction to match observed GC light-element signatures; the formation channel, mass fractions, ages, and dense-cluster link remain independent simulation results.

  1. self definitional [Abstract + Methods (GMC identification and GC-like GMC selection)]
    "we identify a population of giant molecular clouds whose internal abundance patterns reproduce several key globular cluster signatures: large light-element abundance spreads and nitrogen–oxygen anticorrelations at nearly constant iron abundance. … To identify potential GC-like GMCs, we apply chemical selection criteria … range of the log(N/O) distribution … exceed 0.5 dex … Pearson correlation coefficient between [N/Fe] and [O/Fe] must be negative (<−0.3) … standard deviation of [Fe/H] must be less than 0.1 dex"

    The abstract’s claim that the identified clouds “reproduce” the listed GC signatures is true by the explicit selection definition used to label them GC-like. The existence of such clouds and their formation physics are non-circular findings; only the phrasing that they reproduce the defining cuts is tautological.

full rationale

The paper’s central scientific content is the discovery, inside a standard-yield cosmological RHD suite, of a baryon-cycle channel (post-starburst O-rich re-accretion colliding with AGB N-rich gas) that assembles massive GMCs already carrying large log(N/O) spreads and N–O anticorrelations at low Fe dispersion, and that these GMCs form dense bound clusters. That channel and the subsequent cluster statistics are not forced by the selection cuts; they are measured outcomes. The only mild circularity is definitional: “GC-like” is defined by the very abundance criteria the abstract then says the clouds “reproduce.” This is ordinary analog selection, not a fitted parameter renamed as a prediction, nor a self-citation uniqueness theorem. The Na–O step is an untested analogy (correctness risk), not a circular reduction. Self-citations to the authors’ prior THESAN-ZOOM N/O paper supply context for the same baryon cycle but are not load-bearing for the GMC or cluster results shown here. Score 2 reflects one non-load-bearing definitional step plus ordinary self-citation; the derivation chain is otherwise self-contained against external GC benchmarks.

Assumptions & free parameters 5 free parameters · 4 assumptions · 1 invented entities

The central claim rests on standard stellar yield tables and the THESAN-ZOOM physics model (domain assumptions), plus several analysis thresholds chosen to isolate GC-like chemistry (free parameters). The entity 'GC-like GMC' is defined by those cuts; no new particles or forces are invented. Long-term cluster survival and sodium production are extrapolated rather than simulated.

free parameters (5)
  • log(N/O) spread threshold for GC-like selection = >0.5 dex
    Set to >0.5 dex to match the lower bound of measured MW GC spreads; directly controls which clouds enter the sample.
  • Pearson r([N/Fe],[O/Fe]) threshold = <−0.3
    Set to <−0.3 to require anticorrelation; selection cut, not derived from first principles.
  • σ[Fe/H] homogeneity cut = <0.1 dex
    Set to <0.1 dex to enforce iron homogeneity characteristic of Type I GCs.
  • CloudPhinder α_max (virial parameter) = 20
    Chosen as 20 to capture loosely bound clouds; analysis stated not sensitive but still a free analysis choice.
  • Surface-density threshold for dense clusters = ≳700 M⊙ pc−2
    Σ* ≳ 700 M⊙ pc−2 used to split chemical behaviour; chosen to match observed GC densities and simulation predictions.
assumptions (4)
  • domain assumption Standard mass- and metallicity-dependent yields for AGB stars, core-collapse SNe, and Type Ia SNe (Karakas, Portinari, Kobayashi, Nomoto tables as implemented in IllustrisTNG/THESAN) correctly capture the relative production of N, O, Mg, Si, Fe relevant to GC patterns.
    Invoked throughout Methods and the enrichment model description; without it the N-rich vs O-rich streams do not arise.
  • domain assumption GMC gas-phase abundance patterns are imprinted on the stars that form from them with negligible further light-element processing before the first core-collapse SNe.
    Required for the inheritance claim; stated as the short ≲3–5 Myr formation window before Fe injection.
  • ad hoc to paper Sodium is co-produced with nitrogen in AGB stars via the NeNa cycle sufficiently that the observed Na–O anticorrelation would follow the simulated N–O anticorrelation.
    Explicitly acknowledged as untracked; the paper argues by analogy rather than direct simulation.
  • domain assumption The THESAN-ZOOM resolution and feedback model (including runs without early stellar feedback for cluster identification) adequately capture the formation of bound dense clusters from the selected GMCs.
    Methods note stellar softening is too large for long-term evolution; young-cluster identification is used as a proxy.
invented entities (1)
  • GC-like GMC population
    purpose: Chemically defined subset of simulated GMCs that match key GC abundance signatures and are proposed as birth sites of GCs.
    Defined by the paper’s selection cuts; not an independent astronomical catalog. Independent evidence is partial (mass fraction vs metallicity and age–metallicity consistency with MW GCs).

how reviews work

0 comments
Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Globular cluster abundance patterns inherited from giant molecular clouds." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/UQLY6KQR

@misc{pith2026260705509,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Globular cluster abundance patterns inherited from giant molecular clouds},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/UQLY6KQR}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2607.05509}
}
read the original abstract

Globular clusters exhibit large star-to-star variations and anticorrelations in their light element abundances that are commonly interpreted in terms of in-cluster self-enrichment, in which ejecta from early-forming cluster stars pollute the gas from which later stars form over millions of years. Yet proposed self-enrichment scenarios suffer from a severe mass-budget problem or invoke exotic stellar populations. Using cosmological radiation-hydrodynamic simulations with a standard chemical enrichment model, we identify a population of giant molecular clouds whose internal abundance patterns reproduce several key globular cluster signatures: large light-element abundance spreads and nitrogen-oxygen anticorrelations at nearly constant iron abundance. These clouds form at the restart of star-formation activity after an earlier starburst, where previously ejected oxygen-rich gas collides with nitrogen-rich galactic gas, and are sites of dense star-cluster formation. In this picture, the chemical abundance patterns of globular clusters need not require extended in-cluster star formation, but can be inherited at birth from chemically structured interstellar gas shaped by the baryon cycle. Globular clusters therefore provide a fossil record of chemical enrichment and gas flows in high-redshift galaxies.

Discussion (0). Sign in to comment.

Forward citations

Cited by 1 Pith paper

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score.

  1. Reaching the Metallicity Floor at $z\sim 10$: Lensed Star Clusters at Cosmic Dawn and Cosmic Noon

    astro-ph.GA 2026-07 conditional novelty 6.0 of 10

    GEMS clusters formed at z_form~10.2 with population [Z/H]~-2.3 (prior-dependent floor-level value; data exclude ≥-0.5), while Sparkler clusters formed ~2.5 Gyr later at [Z/H]~-0.5, probing two enrichment regimes.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

89 extracted references · cited by 1 Pith paper

  1. [1]

    E., Harris G

    Harris W. E., Harris G. L. H., Alessi M., 2013. A Catalog of GlobularClusterSystems:WhatDeterminestheSizeofaGalaxy’s Globular Cluster Population?, ApJ, 772, 82

    2013

  2. [2]

    What is a globular cluster? An obser- vational perspective, A&ARv, 27, 8

    Gratton R., et al., 2019. What is a globular cluster? An obser- vational perspective, A&ARv, 27, 8

    2019

  3. [3]

    P., Strader J., 2006

    Brodie J. P., Strader J., 2006. Extragalactic Globular Clusters and Galaxy Formation, ARA&A, 44, 193

    2006

  4. [4]

    A., et al., 2018

    Forbes D. A., et al., 2018. Globular cluster formation and evo- lution in the context of cosmological galaxy assembly: open ques- tions, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series A, 474, 20170616

    2018

  5. [5]

    D., et al., 2025

    Taylor E. D., et al., 2025. The emergence of globular clusters and globular-cluster-like dwarfs, Nature, 645, 327

    2025

  6. [6]

    CarrettaE.,etal.,2009.Na-OanticorrelationandHB.VII.The chemical composition of first and second-generation stars in 15 globular clusters from GIRAFFE spectra, A&A, 505, 117

    2009

  7. [7]

    G., Carretta E., Bragaglia A., 2012

    Gratton R. G., Carretta E., Bragaglia A., 2012. Multiple pop- ulations in globular clusters. Lessons learned from the Milky Way globular clusters, A&ARv, 20, 50

    2012

  8. [8]

    Multiple Stellar Populations in Globular Clusters, ARA&A, 56, 83

    Bastian N., Lardo C., 2018. Multiple Stellar Populations in Globular Clusters, ARA&A, 56, 83

    2018

Show all 89 references
  1. [9]

    D’Ercole A., D’Antona F., Ventura P., Vesperini E., McMillan S. L. W., 2010. Abundance patterns of multiple populations in globularclusters:achemicalevolutionmodelbasedonyieldsfrom AGB ejecta, MNRAS, 407, 854

    2010

  2. [10]

    YieldsofAGBandSAGBmodelswithchemistryoflow-andhigh- metallicity globular clusters, MNRAS, 431, 3642

    Ventura P., Di Criscienzo M., Carini R., D’Antona F., 2013. YieldsofAGBandSAGBmodelswithchemistryoflow-andhigh- metallicity globular clusters, MNRAS, 431, 3642

    2013

  3. [11]

    DecressinT.,MeynetG.,CharbonnelC.,PrantzosN.,Ekström S.,2007.Fastrotatingmassivestarsandtheoriginoftheabundance patterns in galactic globular clusters, A&A, 464, 1029

    2007

  4. [12]

    E., Pols O

    de Mink S. E., Pols O. R., Langer N., Izzard R. G., 2009. Massive binaries as the source of abundance anomalies in globular clusters, A&A, 507, L1

    2009

  5. [13]

    A., Hartwick F

    Denissenkov P. A., Hartwick F. D. A., 2014. Supermassive starsasasourceofabundanceanomaliesofproton-captureelements in globular clusters, MNRAS, 437, L21

    2014

  6. [14]

    GielesM.,etal.,2018.Concurrentformationofsupermassive stars and globular clusters: implications for early self-enrichment, MNRAS, 478, 2461

    2018

  7. [15]

    S., Ramírez- GaleanoL.,2025.Globularclusterformationfrominertialinflows: accretingextremelymassivestarsastheoriginofabundanceanoma- lies, MNRAS, 544, 483

    Gieles M., Padoan P., Charbonnel C., Vink J. S., Ramírez- GaleanoL.,2025.Globularclusterformationfrominertialinflows: accretingextremelymassivestarsastheoriginofabundanceanoma- lies, MNRAS, 544, 483

    2025

  8. [16]

    Globular cluster mass-loss in the context of multiple populations, MNRAS, 453, 357

    Bastian N., Lardo C., 2015. Globular cluster mass-loss in the context of multiple populations, MNRAS, 453, 357

    2015

  9. [17]

    J., et al., 2023

    Bunker A. J., et al., 2023. JADES NIRSpec Spectroscopy of GN-z11: Lyman-𝛼emission and possible enhanced nitrogen abun- dance in a z = 10.60 luminous galaxy, A&A, 677, A88

    2023

  10. [18]

    JWST Identification of Extremely Low C/N Galaxies with [N/O]≳0.5 at z 6-10 Evidencing the Early CNO-cycle Enrichment and a Connection with Globular Cluster Formation, ApJ, 959, 100

    Isobe Y., et al., 2023. JWST Identification of Extremely Low C/N Galaxies with [N/O]≳0.5 at z 6-10 Evidencing the Early CNO-cycle Enrichment and a Connection with Globular Cluster Formation, ApJ, 959, 100

    2023

  11. [19]

    GN-z11 in Context: Possible Sig- natures of Globular Cluster Precursors at Redshift 10, ApJ, 966, 92

    Senchyna P., et al., 2024. GN-z11 in Context: Possible Sig- natures of Globular Cluster Precursors at Redshift 10, ApJ, 966, 92

    2024

  12. [20]

    JiX.,etal.,2026.ConnectingJWSTdiscoveredN/O-enhanced galaxiestoglobularclusters:evidencefromchemicalimprints,MN- RAS, 545, staf2110

    2026

  13. [21]

    P., et al., 2026

    Naidu R. P., et al., 2026. A Cosmic Miracle: A Remarkably Luminous Galaxy at zspec = 14.44 Confirmed with JWST, The Open Journal of Astrophysics, 9, 56033

    2026

  14. [22]

    N-enhancement in GN-z11: First evidence for supermassive stars nucleosynthesis in proto-globular clusters-like conditions at high redshift?, A&A, 673, L7

    Charbonnel C., et al., 2023. N-enhancement in GN-z11: First evidence for supermassive stars nucleosynthesis in proto-globular clusters-like conditions at high redshift?, A&A, 673, L7

    2023

  15. [23]

    The THESAN-ZOOM project: Mystery N/O more – uncovering the origin of peculiar chemical abundances and a not-so-fundamental metallicity relation at3< 𝑧 <12, preprint, p

    McClymont W., et al., 2025. The THESAN-ZOOM project: Mystery N/O more – uncovering the origin of peculiar chemical abundances and a not-so-fundamental metallicity relation at3< 𝑧 <12, preprint, p. arXiv:2507.08787arXiv:2507.08787

    2025

  16. [24]

    Introducing the THESAN-ZOOM project:radiation-hydrodynamicsimulationsofhigh-redshiftgalax- ies with a multi-phase interstellar medium, The Open Journal of Astrophysics, 8, 153

    Kannan R., et al., 2025. Introducing the THESAN-ZOOM project:radiation-hydrodynamicsimulationsofhigh-redshiftgalax- ies with a multi-phase interstellar medium, The Open Journal of Astrophysics, 8, 153

    2025

  17. [27]

    J., et al., 2024

    Looser T. J., et al., 2024. A recently quenched galaxy 700 million years after the Big Bang, Nature, 629, 53

    2024

  18. [28]

    Rising from the ashes: evidence of old stellar populations and rejuvenation events in the very early Universe, MNRAS, 537, 112

    Witten C., et al., 2025. Rising from the ashes: evidence of old stellar populations and rejuvenation events in the very early Universe, MNRAS, 537, 112

    2025

  19. [29]

    C., Caplar N., 2020

    Tacchella S., Forbes J. C., Caplar N., 2020. Stochastic mod- elling of star-formation histories II: star-formation variability from molecular clouds and gas inflow, MNRAS, 497, 698

    2020

  20. [30]

    The THESAN-ZOOM project: burst, quench, repeat – unveiling the evolution of high-redshift galaxies along the star-forming main sequence, MNRAS, 544, 513

    McClymont W., et al., 2025. The THESAN-ZOOM project: burst, quench, repeat – unveiling the evolution of high-redshift galaxies along the star-forming main sequence, MNRAS, 544, 513

    2025

  21. [31]

    LahénN.,etal.,2019.TheFormationofLow-metallicityGlob- ular Clusters in Dwarf Galaxy Mergers, ApJ, 879, L18

    2019

  22. [32]

    The GRIFFIN Project—Formation of Star Clusters with Individual Massive Stars in a Simulated Dwarf Galaxy Starburst, ApJ, 891, 2

    Lahén N., et al., 2020. The GRIFFIN Project—Formation of Star Clusters with Individual Massive Stars in a Simulated Dwarf Galaxy Starburst, ApJ, 891, 2

    2020

  23. [33]

    BaumgardtH.,HilkerM.,2018.Acatalogueofmasses,struc- turalparameters,andvelocitydispersionprofilesof112MilkyWay globular clusters, MNRAS, 478, 1520

    2018

  24. [34]

    The formation of globular clusters with top-heavy initial mass functions, MNRAS, 524, 1422

    Fukushima H., Yajima H., 2023. The formation of globular clusters with top-heavy initial mass functions, MNRAS, 524, 1422

    2023

  25. [35]

    P., et al., 2017

    Milone A. P., et al., 2017. The Hubble Space Telescope UV Legacy Survey of Galactic globular clusters - IX. The Atlas of multiple stellar populations, MNRAS, 464, 3636

    2017

  26. [36]

    Linking photometry and spec- troscopy:profilingmultiplepopulationsinglobularclusters,A&A, 697, A135

    Dondoglio E., et al., 2025. Linking photometry and spec- troscopy:profilingmultiplepopulationsinglobularclusters,A&A, 697, A135

    2025

  27. [38]

    D’Ercole A., Vesperini E., D’Antona F., McMillan S. L. W., Recchi S., 2008. Formation and dynamical evolution of multiple stellar generations in globular clusters, MNRAS, 391, 825

    2008

  28. [39]

    The self-enrichment scenario in intermediate metallicity globular clusters, A&A, 479, 805

    Ventura P., D’Antona F., 2008. The self-enrichment scenario in intermediate metallicity globular clusters, A&A, 479, 805

    2008

  29. [40]

    Massive AGB models of low metallicity: the implications for the self-enrichment scenario in metal-poor globular clusters, A&A, 499, 835

    Ventura P., D’Antona F., 2009. Massive AGB models of low metallicity: the implications for the self-enrichment scenario in metal-poor globular clusters, A&A, 499, 835

    2009

  30. [41]

    A single model for the variety of multiple-population formation(s) in globular clusters: a temporal sequence, MNRAS, 458, 2122

    D’Antona F., et al., 2016. A single model for the variety of multiple-population formation(s) in globular clusters: a temporal sequence, MNRAS, 458, 2122

    2016

  31. [42]

    S., 2013

    Bastian N., Cabrera-Ziri I., Davies B., Larsen S. S., 2013. Constraining globular cluster formation through studies of young massiveclusters-I.Alackofongoingstarformationwithinyoung clusters, MNRAS, 436, 2852 6

    2013

  32. [43]

    Coeval multiple stellar popula- tions in the young star cluster NGC 1978, MNRAS, 477, 4696

    MartocchiaS.,etal.,2018.Thesearchformultiplepopulations in Magellanic Cloud clusters - IV. Coeval multiple stellar popula- tions in the young star cluster NGC 1978, MNRAS, 477, 4696

    2018

  33. [44]

    A Family Picture: Tracing the DynamicalPathoftheStructuralPropertiesofMultiplePopulations in Globular Clusters, ApJ, 884, L24

    Dalessandro E., et al., 2019. A Family Picture: Tracing the DynamicalPathoftheStructuralPropertiesofMultiplePopulations in Globular Clusters, ApJ, 884, L24

    2019

  34. [45]

    A wide-field view on multiple stellar populations in 28 Milky Way globular clusters, MNRAS, 520, 1456

    LeitingerE.,BaumgardtH.,Cabrera-ZiriI.,HilkerM.,Pancino E., 2023. A wide-field view on multiple stellar populations in 28 Milky Way globular clusters, MNRAS, 520, 1456

    2023

  35. [46]

    Building the Galactic halo from globular clusters: evidence from chemically unusual red giants, A&A, 534, A136

    MartellS.L.,SmolinskiJ.P.,BeersT.C.,GrebelE.K.,2011. Building the Galactic halo from globular clusters: evidence from chemically unusual red giants, A&A, 534, A136

    2011

  36. [47]

    SchiavonR.P.,etal.,2017.ChemicaltaggingwithAPOGEE: discovery of a large population of N-rich stars in the inner Galaxy, MNRAS, 465, 501

    2017

  37. [48]

    Nitrogen enrichment and clustered star formation at the dawn of the Galaxy, MNRAS, 525, 4456

    Belokurov V., Kravtsov A., 2023. Nitrogen enrichment and clustered star formation at the dawn of the Galaxy, MNRAS, 525, 4456

    2023

  38. [49]

    G., et al., 2025

    Kane S. G., et al., 2025. The ones that got away: chemical tagging of globular cluster-origin stars with Gaia BP/RP spectra, MNRAS, 536, 2507

    2025

  39. [50]

    F., Tsang B

    Pascale M., Dai L., McKee C. F., Tsang B. T.-H., 2023. Nitrogen-enriched, Highly Pressurized Nebular Clouds Surround- ing a Super Star Cluster at Cosmic Noon, ApJ, 957, 77

    2023

  40. [51]

    Lower Resolution

    PascaleM.,DaiL.,2024.AYoungSuperStarClusterPowering a Nebula of Retained Massive Star Ejecta, ApJ, 976, 166 7 Methods Simulations We use the THESAN-ZOOM suite of cosmological radiation- hydrodynamics simulations24. These are zoom-in resimulations of halos selected from the lar...

    2024

  41. [52]

    Introducing the THESAN project: radiation-magnetohydrodynamicsimulationsoftheepochofreion- ization, MNRAS, 511, 4005

    Kannan R., et al., 2022. Introducing the THESAN project: radiation-magnetohydrodynamicsimulationsoftheepochofreion- ization, MNRAS, 511, 4005

    2022

  42. [53]

    The THESAN project: Lyman-𝛼emis- sion and transmission during the Epoch of Reionization, MNRAS, 512, 3243

    Smith A., et al., 2022. The THESAN project: Lyman-𝛼emis- sion and transmission during the Epoch of Reionization, MNRAS, 512, 3243

    2022

  43. [54]

    GaraldiE.,etal.,2022.TheTHESANproject:propertiesofthe intergalactic medium and its connection to reionization-era galax- ies, MNRAS, 512, 4909

    2022

  44. [55]

    E pur si muove: Galilean-invariant cosmo- logical hydrodynamical simulations on a moving mesh, MNRAS, 401, 791

    Springel V., 2010. E pur si muove: Galilean-invariant cosmo- logical hydrodynamical simulations on a moving mesh, MNRAS, 401, 791

    2010

  45. [56]

    KannanR.,etal.,2019.AREPO-RT:radiationhydrodynamics on a moving mesh, MNRAS, 485, 117

    2019

  46. [57]

    Zier O., Kannan R., Smith A., Vogelsberger M., Verbeek E., 2024.AdaptingAREPO-RTforexascalecomputing:GPUacceler- ation and efficient communication, MNRAS, 533, 268

    2024

  47. [58]

    I., 2010

    Karakas A. I., 2010. Updated stellar yields from asymptotic giant branch models, MNRAS, 403, 1413

    2010

  48. [59]

    L., et al., 2014

    Doherty C. L., et al., 2014. Super and massive AGB stars - III. Nucleosynthesis in metal-poor and very metal-poor stars - Z = 0.001 and 0.0001, MNRAS, 441, 582

    2014

  49. [60]

    K., Karakas A

    Fishlock C. K., Karakas A. I., Lugaro M., Yong D., 2014. EvolutionandNucleosynthesisofAsymptoticGiantBranchStellar Models of Low Metallicity, ApJ, 797, 44

    2014

  50. [61]

    Galactic chemical enrichment with new metallicity dependent stellar yields, A&A, 334, 505

    Portinari L., Chiosi C., Bressan A., 1998. Galactic chemical enrichment with new metallicity dependent stellar yields, A&A, 334, 505

    1998

  51. [62]

    Galactic Chemical Evolution: Carbon through Zinc, ApJ, 653, 1145

    Kobayashi C., Umeda H., Nomoto K., Tominaga N., Ohkubo T., 2006. Galactic Chemical Evolution: Carbon through Zinc, ApJ, 653, 1145

    2006

  52. [63]

    A, 621, 467

    NomotoK.,etal.,1997.NucleosynthesisintypeIasupernovae, Nuclear Phys. A, 621, 467

    1997

  53. [64]

    Simulating galaxy formation with the IllustrisTNG model, MNRAS, 473, 4077

    Pillepich A., et al., 2018. Simulating galaxy formation with the IllustrisTNG model, MNRAS, 473, 4077

    2018

  54. [65]

    A model for cosmological sim- ulations of galaxy formation physics, MNRAS, 436, 3031

    Vogelsberger M., et al., 2013. A model for cosmological sim- ulations of galaxy formation physics, MNRAS, 436, 3031

    2013

  55. [66]

    S., White S

    Davis M., Efstathiou G., Frenk C. S., White S. D. M., 1985. The evolution of large-scale structure in a universe dominated by cold dark matter, ApJ, 292, 371

    1985

  56. [67]

    GuszejnovD.,etal.,2020.Evolutionofgiantmolecularclouds across cosmic time, MNRAS, 492, 488

    2020

  57. [68]

    Y., et al., 2018

    Grudić M. Y., et al., 2018. From the top down and back up again: star cluster structure from hierarchical star formation, MN- RAS, 481, 688

    2018

  58. [69]

    E., 2026

    Dornan V., Harris W. E., 2026. Globular Cluster Systems in Dwarf Galaxies: Catalogs and Comparisons, ApJ, 998, 41

    2026

  59. [70]

    W., et al., 2008

    Peng E. W., et al., 2008. The ACS Virgo Cluster Survey. XV.TheFormationEfficienciesofGlobularClustersinEarly-Type Galaxies: The Effects of Mass and Environment, ApJ, 681, 197

    2008

  60. [71]

    LiuY.,etal.,2019.TheACSFornaxClusterSurvey.III.Glob- ularClusterSpecificFrequenciesofEarly-typeGalaxies,ApJ,875, 156

    2019

  61. [72]

    ProleD.J.,etal.,2019.Halomassestimatesfromtheglobular cluster populations of 175 low surface brightness galaxies in the Fornax cluster, MNRAS, 484, 4865

    2019

  62. [73]

    G., Greene J

    Carlsten S. G., Greene J. E., Beaton R. L., Greco J. P., 2022. ELVES II: Globular Clusters and Nuclear Star Clusters of Dwarf Galaxies: the Importance of Environment, ApJ, 927, 44

    2022

  63. [74]

    R., et al., 2024

    Marleau F. R., et al., 2024. Dwarf galaxies in the MATLAS Survey:HubbleSpaceTelescopeobservationsoftheglobularclus- ter systems of 74 ultra-diffuse galaxies, A&A, 690, A339

    2024

  64. [75]

    Y., Puzia T

    Georgiev I. Y., Puzia T. H., Goudfrooij P., Hilker M., 2010. Globular cluster systems in nearby dwarf galaxies - III. Formation efficiencies of old globular clusters, MNRAS, 406, 1967

    2010

  65. [76]

    S., et al., 2024

    Gannon J. S., et al., 2024. A Catalogue and analysis of ultra- diffuse galaxy spectroscopic properties, MNRAS, 531, 1856

    2024

  66. [77]

    MonacoL.,etal.,2005.TheItal-FLAMESsurveyoftheSagit- tarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy. I. Chemical abundances of bright RGB stars, A&A, 441, 141

    2005

  67. [78]

    ChoudhuryS.,SubramaniamA.,ColeA.A.,2016.Photomet- ric metallicity map of the Large Magellanic Cloud, MNRAS, 455, 1855

    2016

  68. [79]

    The Comparative Chemical Evolu- tion of an Isolated Dwarf Galaxy: A VLT and Keck Spectroscopic Survey of WLM, ApJ, 767, 131

    Leaman R., et al., 2013. The Comparative Chemical Evolu- tion of an Isolated Dwarf Galaxy: A VLT and Keck Spectroscopic Survey of WLM, ApJ, 767, 131

    2013

  69. [80]

    de Boer T. J. L., Fraser M., 2016. Four and one more: The formation history and total mass of globular clusters in the Fornax dSph, A&A, 590, A35

    2016

  70. [81]

    LarsenS.S.,StraderJ.,BrodieJ.P.,2012.Constraintsonmass loss and self-enrichment scenarios for the globular clusters of the Fornax dSph, A&A, 544, L14

    2012

  71. [82]

    W.,etal.,2022

    FuS. W.,etal.,2022. MetallicityDistributionFunction ofthe EridanusIIUltra-faintDwarfGalaxyfromHubbleSpaceTelescope Narrowband Imaging, ApJ, 925, 6

    2022

  72. [83]

    S., et al., 2017

    Li T. S., et al., 2017. Farthest Neighbor: The Distant Milky Way Satellite Eridanus II, ApJ, 838, 8

    2017

  73. [84]

    Orkney M. D. A., et al., 2022. EDGE: the puzzling ellipticity of Eridanus II’s star cluster and its implications for dark matter at the heart of an ultra-faint dwarf, MNRAS, 515, 185

    2022

  74. [85]

    The SAMI-Fornax Dwarfs 14 Survey - III

    Romero-Gómez J., et al., 2023. The SAMI-Fornax Dwarfs 14 Survey - III. Evolution of [𝛼/Fe] in dwarfs, from Galaxy Clusters to the Local Group, MNRAS, 522, 130

    2023

  75. [86]

    PaceA.B.,2025.TheLocalVolumeDatabase:alibraryofthe observed properties of nearby dwarf galaxies and star clusters, The Open Journal of Astrophysics, 8, 142

    2025

  76. [87]

    SalarisM.,ChieffiA.,StranieroO.,1993.Thealpha-enhanced Isochrones and Their Impact on the FITS to the Galactic Globular Cluster System, ApJ, 414, 580

    1993

  77. [88]

    A., Brogaard K., Leaman R., Casagrande L.,

    VandenBerg D. A., Brogaard K., Leaman R., Casagrande L.,

  78. [89]

    The Ages of 55 Globular Clusters as Determined Using an ImprovedΔ𝑉 𝐻 𝐵 𝑇𝑂 Method along with Color-Magnitude Diagram Constraints, and Their Implications for Broader Issues, ApJ, 775, 134

  79. [90]

    The Seventeenth Data Release of the Sloan Digital Sky Surveys: Complete Release of MaNGA, MaStar, and APOGEE-2 Data, ApJS, 259, 35

    Abdurro’uf et al., 2022. The Seventeenth Data Release of the Sloan Digital Sky Surveys: Complete Release of MaNGA, MaStar, and APOGEE-2 Data, ApJS, 259, 35

    2022

  80. [91]

    From dawn till disc: Milky Way’s turbulent youth revealed by the APOGEE+Gaia data, MN- RAS, 514, 689

    Belokurov V., Kravtsov A., 2022. From dawn till disc: Milky Way’s turbulent youth revealed by the APOGEE+Gaia data, MN- RAS, 514, 689

    2022

  81. [92]

    (www.gauss-centre.eu) for funding this project by providing computing time on the GCS Supercomputer SuperMUC- NGatLeibnizSupercomputingCentre(www.lrz.de),underproject pn29we

    VasilievE.,BaumgardtH.,2021.GaiaEDR3viewongalactic globular clusters, MNRAS, 505, 5978 Acknowledgements TheauthorsgratefullyacknowledgetheGaussCentreforSupercom- puting e.V. (www.gauss-centre.eu) for funding this project by providing computing time on the GCS Supercomputer Sup...

    2021

Pith tools

Reviewed July 11, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.