pith. sign in

arxiv: 1906.09656 · v1 · pith:PBDXSVXWnew · submitted 2019-06-23 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

The "Red Radio Ring": Ionised and Molecular Gas in a Starburst/Active Galactic Nucleus at z sim 2.55

K. C. Harrington (1 , 2) , A. Vishwas (3) , A.Weiss (4) , B.Magnelli (1) , L.Grassitelli , M. Zajacek (4 , 5
show 39 more authors
6) E.F.Jimenez-Andrade (1 T. K. D.Leung (3 7) F.Bertoldi (1) E. Romano-Diaz (1) D.T.Frayer (8) P.Kamieneski (10) D.Riechers (3 9) G. J.Stacey (3) M.S.Yun (10) Q.D.Wang (10) ( (1) (Argelander Institut f\"ur Astronomie Bonn Germany) (2) International Max Planck Research School of Astronomy Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn Cologne (3) Department of Astronomy Cornell University USA (4) Max-Planck-Institut f\"ur Radioastronomie (MPIfR) Germany (5) Center for Theoretical Physics Polish Academy of Sciences Warsaw Poland (6) I. Physikalisches Institut der Universit\"at zu K\"oln K\"oln (7) Center for Computational Astrophysics Flatiron Institute USA (8) Green Bank Observatory West Virginia (9) Max-Planck-Institut f\"ur Astronomie Heidelberg (10) Department of Astronomy University of Massachusetts Amherst USA)
This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-25 17:26 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords high-redshift galaxiesinterstellar mediumstarburst galaxiesgravitational lensingfar-infrared spectroscopymolecular gasdust attenuation
0
0 comments X

The pith

The Red Radio Ring at z=2.55 has a starburst-powered interstellar medium once dust attenuation on the [NII]205 line is accounted for.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper reports detection of the [NII]205 micron fine-structure line in a strongly lensed galaxy at redshift 2.55. Combining this with new CO line observations and the far-infrared spectral energy distribution shows that ionized gas traced by [NII] and molecular gas traced by CO are co-spatial on kiloparsec scales. After applying a dust attenuation correction the line-to-infrared luminosity ratio falls within the range seen in local and z>4 star-forming galaxies, and the overall SEDs and ratios indicate a starburst-powered ISM rather than AGN dominance. A reader would care because the object offers a magnified view of multi-phase gas conditions during the peak epoch of galaxy assembly.

Core claim

The attenuation corrected ratio of L_NII205 / L_IR(8-1000μm) = 2.7 × 10^{-4} is consistent with the dispersion of local and z > 4 SFGs, and the dust SED, CO line SED and L_NII205 line-to-IR luminosity ratio of the RRR is consistent with a starburst-powered ISM.

What carries the argument

The [NII]205 fine-structure line combined with multiple CO transitions and the FIR SED to map co-spatial ionized and molecular phases while applying a uniform dust screen correction.

If this is right

  • Dust attenuation corrections must be applied when interpreting FIR fine-structure lines in dusty high-redshift systems.
  • The [NII]-derived star-formation rate underestimates the IR-derived rate by a factor of four.
  • The molecular gas column density exceeds 10^24 cm^{-2} and the gas-to-dust ratio is 100 under the adopted screen model.
  • The object's line and continuum properties align with both local and z>4 star-forming galaxies.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Dust corrections of similar magnitude may be required for other FIR fine-structure lines observed in lensed or infrared-luminous galaxies at comparable redshifts.
  • The co-spatiality result could be tested with higher-resolution ALMA data to check whether the phases remain aligned on sub-kiloparsec scales.
  • The high inferred column density implies that future observations of additional dense-gas tracers could quantify the fraction of gas available for star formation.

Load-bearing premise

The uniform dust screen approximation used to derive a mean molecular gas column density greater than 10^24 cm^{-2} and a gas-to-dust mass ratio of 100.

What would settle it

A spatially resolved map showing the [NII]205 emission offset from the CO emission peaks or a direct measurement of the unattenuated [NII] flux that yields a line-to-IR ratio outside the star-forming galaxy dispersion.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 1906.09656 by (10) Department of Astronomy, 2), (2) International Max Planck Research School of Astronomy, (3) Department of Astronomy, 5, (5) Center for Theoretical Physics, 6), (6) I. Physikalisches Institut der Universit\"at zu K\"oln, 7), (7) Center for Computational Astrophysics, (8) Green Bank Observatory, 9), (9) Max-Planck-Institut f\"ur Astronomie, Amherst, Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn, A. Vishwas (3), A.Weiss (4), B.Magnelli (1), Bonn, Cologne, Cornell University, D.Riechers (3, D.T.Frayer (8), E.F.Jimenez-Andrade (1, E. Romano-Diaz (1), F.Bertoldi (1), Flatiron Institute, Germany, Germany), G. J.Stacey (3), Heidelberg, K. C. Harrington (1, K\"oln, L.Grassitelli, M.S.Yun (10), M. Zajacek (4, P.Kamieneski (10), Poland, Polish Academy of Sciences, Q.D.Wang (10) ( (1) (Argelander Institut f\"ur Astronomie, T. K. D.Leung (3, University of Massachusetts, USA, USA), USA (4) Max-Planck-Institut f\"ur Radioastronomie (MPIfR), Warsaw, West Virginia.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: The spectra and two-component Gaussian fits for the [Nii] 205 µm (green; top left), CO(1-0) (blue; bottom left), CO(5-4) (orange; top right) and CO(8-7) (red; bottom right) lines. To aid comparisons among all line profiles, the best-fit Gaussian models have been re-scaled to the observed peak of each spectrum within each panel. The zero-point velocity is determined using z = 2.553. 3.3 IRAM 30m Observation… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: The best-fit modified blackbody SED model (black line) for the RRR. We also show multiple iterations of the models created by sampling the parameter space for the modified blackbody (cyan) that are representative of the degeneracies in the parameter space. Data included for the SED fit exercise is shown as colored circles with corresponding error bars: (indigo) WISE/W4, (blue) Herschel/SPIRE, (yellow) ACT … view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Posterior probability distribution for the SED model parameters: the value at which the dust opacity reaches unity is at rest-frame wavelength of λ0, dust emissivity index, β, a single component dust temperature, Td, and the Wien-side power law slope for SFGs, α [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The dust attenuation correction as a function of mean molecular hydrogen column density. A single uniform dust screen approximation (with GDMR = 100; dust-emissivity spec￾tral index, β = 2.03), evaluated at: the rest-wavelengths of the [Nii] 205 µm (green dotted line), the [Nii] 122 µm (blue dashed line) and [C ii]158 µm (red dashed-dotted line) line emission, in￾cluding the result for the RRR (blue star).… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: [Nii] 205 µm line luminosity to total IR (8-1000 µm ) lu￾minosity ratio in various samples, probing a broad redshift range: local starburst, M82 (green ‘x’) and AGN, Mrk231 (orange ‘x’), Walter et al. (2009); Decarli et al. (2012, 2014); Combes et al. (2012); Nagao et al. (2012); B´ethermin et al. (2016); Pavesi et al. (2016, 2018a); Lu et al. (2018) (red stars), including the attenua￾tion corrected value … view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We report the detection of the far-infrared (FIR) fine-structure line of singly ionised nitrogen, \Nplusa, within the peak epoch of galaxy assembly, from a strongly lensed galaxy, hereafter ``The Red Radio Ring''; the RRR, at z = 2.55. We combine new observations of the ground-state and mid-J transitions of CO (J$_{\rm up} =$ 1,5,8), and the FIR spectral energy distribution (SED), to explore the multi-phase interstellar medium (ISM) properties of the RRR. All line profiles suggest that the HII regions, traced by \Nplusa, and the (diffuse and dense) molecular gas, traced by the CO, are co-spatial when averaged over kpc-sized regions. Using its mid-IR-to-millimetre (mm) SED, we derive a non-negligible dust attenuation of the \Nplusa line emission. Assuming a uniform dust screen approximation results a mean molecular gas column density $> 10^{24}$\, cm$^{-2}$, with a molecular gas-to-dust mass ratio of 100. It is clear that dust attenuation corrections should be accounted for when studying FIR fine-structure lines in such systems. The attenuation corrected ratio of $L_{\rm NII205} / L_{\rm IR(8-1000\mu m)} = 2.7 \times 10^{-4}$ is consistent with the dispersion of local and $z >$ 4 SFGs. We find that the lower-limit, \Nplusa -based star-formation rate (SFR) is less than the IR-derived SFR by a factor of four. Finally, the dust SED, CO line SED and $L_{\rm NII205}$ line-to-IR luminosity ratio of the RRR is consistent with a starburst-powered ISM.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper reports the detection of the [N II] 205 μm fine-structure line in the strongly lensed 'Red Radio Ring' galaxy at z = 2.55. It combines new CO (J_up = 1, 5, 8) observations and the mid-IR to mm SED to argue that H II regions (traced by [N II]) and molecular gas (traced by CO) are co-spatial on kpc scales, derives a molecular gas column density > 10^{24} cm^{-2} and gas-to-dust ratio of 100 under a uniform dust screen, and concludes that the attenuation-corrected L_[N II]205 / L_IR(8-1000 μm) = 2.7 × 10^{-4} is consistent with local and z > 4 star-forming galaxies, implying a starburst-powered ISM.

Significance. If the uniform-screen attenuation correction is robust, the work demonstrates the importance of accounting for dust attenuation when using FIR fine-structure lines at high redshift and adds a well-observed lensed system to the sample of multi-phase ISM studies. The combination of multiple CO transitions, [N II], and SED fitting provides concrete observational constraints on co-spatiality and luminosity ratios in an extreme z ~ 2.5 object.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract (SED and attenuation paragraph): The headline consistency of the corrected L_NII205 / L_IR = 2.7 × 10^{-4} with the dispersion of local and z > 4 SFGs (and the resulting starburst-powered ISM conclusion) rests on the uniform dust screen model used to derive the attenuation factor, N_H2 > 10^{24} cm^{-2}, and GDR = 100. The manuscript does not test or quantify how a mixed or clumpy dust-gas geometry would alter the effective optical depth at 205 μm and therefore the de-attenuated ratio.
  2. [Abstract] Abstract: The molecular gas-to-dust mass ratio is listed as a derived quantity of 100, yet it functions as an input assumption within the uniform-screen column-density calculation; the text should clarify whether this value is fixed a priori or independently constrained by the data.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The reported ratio 2.7 × 10^{-4} is given without uncertainties, which are required to evaluate whether it truly lies within the dispersion of comparison samples.
  2. [Abstract] Abstract: No error bars, full line flux tables, or SED fit parameters are referenced, making immediate verification of the numerical results difficult.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their careful reading of the manuscript and for the constructive comments. We respond to each major comment below.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract (SED and attenuation paragraph): The headline consistency of the corrected L_NII205 / L_IR = 2.7 × 10^{-4} with the dispersion of local and z > 4 SFGs (and the resulting starburst-powered ISM conclusion) rests on the uniform dust screen model used to derive the attenuation factor, N_H2 > 10^{24} cm^{-2}, and GDR = 100. The manuscript does not test or quantify how a mixed or clumpy dust-gas geometry would alter the effective optical depth at 205 μm and therefore the de-attenuated ratio.

    Authors: We agree that the analysis adopts the uniform dust screen as a simplifying approximation and does not explore alternative mixed or clumpy geometries. This is a standard assumption in the literature for estimating attenuation from SED-derived dust columns when spatially resolved information is limited. In the revised version we will explicitly state the assumption in the abstract and relevant sections, add a brief discussion of how clumpy geometries could reduce the effective optical depth at 205 μm, and note that the quoted attenuation factor and column density are specific to the uniform-screen case. The broader conclusion that dust attenuation must be considered for FIR fine-structure lines at high redshift remains unchanged. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The molecular gas-to-dust mass ratio is listed as a derived quantity of 100, yet it functions as an input assumption within the uniform-screen column-density calculation; the text should clarify whether this value is fixed a priori or independently constrained by the data.

    Authors: The referee correctly identifies that the GDR = 100 is an adopted input value, drawn from typical local-galaxy measurements, and is used to convert the dust surface density (inferred from the attenuation) into a molecular gas column density. It is not independently constrained by the present dataset. We will revise the abstract and the corresponding methods paragraph to remove any implication that the ratio is derived and to state clearly that it is an assumed input. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity; derivations are observational and self-contained

full rationale

The paper reports new line detections and SED data for the RRR, applies an explicit uniform dust screen assumption to the observed mid-IR-to-mm SED to derive N_H2 and GDR, computes the attenuation-corrected L_NII205/L_IR ratio from those measurements, and compares the result to independent literature samples of local and z>4 SFGs. No quantity is obtained by fitting a parameter to a data subset and then relabeling it a prediction; the gas-to-dust ratio is output from the SED rather than presupposed; no self-citation supplies a uniqueness theorem or ansatz that the central claim rests upon. The chain therefore remains independent of its own fitted outputs and is externally falsifiable against other galaxies.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The analysis rests on standard domain assumptions for FIR line excitation and dust geometry rather than new postulates; one explicit modeling choice (uniform screen) is required for the column-density result.

free parameters (1)
  • molecular gas-to-dust mass ratio
    Stated value of 100 used to convert dust mass to gas column; appears derived from SED but functions as a scaling parameter in the reported result.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption uniform dust screen approximation for attenuation correction
    Invoked to obtain N_H2 > 10^24 cm^{-2} from the observed [NII] line strength.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 6186 in / 1299 out tokens · 28890 ms · 2026-05-25T17:26:19.187383+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Lean theorems connected to this paper

Citations machine-checked in the Pith Canon. Every link opens the source theorem in the public Lean library.

What do these tags mean?
matches
The paper's claim is directly supported by a theorem in the formal canon.
supports
The theorem supports part of the paper's argument, but the paper may add assumptions or extra steps.
extends
The paper goes beyond the formal theorem; the theorem is a base layer rather than the whole result.
uses
The paper appears to rely on the theorem as machinery.
contradicts
The paper's claim conflicts with a theorem or certificate in the canon.
unclear
Pith found a possible connection, but the passage is too broad, indirect, or ambiguous to say the theorem truly supports the claim.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

150 extracted references · 150 canonical work pages · 11 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    write newline

    " write newline "" before.all 'output.state := FUNCTION fin.entry write newline FUNCTION new.block output.state before.all = 'skip after.block 'output.state := if FUNCTION new.sentence output.state after.block = 'skip output.state before.all = 'skip after.sentence 'output.state := if if FUNCTION not #0 #1 if FUNCTION and 'skip pop #0 if FUNCTION or pop #1...

    work page

  2. [2]

    C., McMahon R

    Alaghband-Zadeh S., Banerji M., Hewett P. C., McMahon R. G., 2016, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stw682 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2016MNRAS.459..999A 459, 999

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stw682 2016

  3. [3]

    A., Phillips M

    Baldwin J. A., Phillips M. M., Terlevich R., 1981, @doi [ ] 10.1086/130766 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981PASP...93....5B 93, 5

    work page doi:10.1086/130766 1981

  4. [4]

    Baron D., et al., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/sty2113 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018MNRAS.480.3993B 480, 3993

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2113 2018

  5. [5]

    L., et al., 1994, @doi [ ] 10.1086/174761 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/1994ApJ...434..587B 434, 587

    Bennett C. L., et al., 1994, @doi [ ] 10.1086/174761 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/1994ApJ...434..587B 434, 587

    work page doi:10.1086/174761 1994

  6. [6]

    L., Larson D., Weiland J

    Bennett C. L., Larson D., Weiland J. L., Hinshaw G., 2014, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/794/2/135 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ApJ...794..135B 794, 135

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/794/2/135 2014

  7. [7]

    B \'e thermin M., et al., 2016, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201527739 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016A\

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527739 2016

  8. [8]

    S., et al., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/sts562 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013MNRAS.429.3047B 429, 3047

    Bothwell M. S., et al., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/sts562 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013MNRAS.429.3047B 429, 3047

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sts562 2013

  9. [9]

    J., Spoon H., Hailey-Dunsheath S., Verma A., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/799/1/13 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2015ApJ...799...13B 799, 13

    Brisbin D., Ferkinhoff C., Nikola T., Parshley S., Stacey G. J., Spoon H., Hailey-Dunsheath S., Verma A., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/799/1/13 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2015ApJ...799...13B 799, 13

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/799/1/13 2015

  10. [10]

    Brott I., et al., 2011, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201016113 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2011A&A...530A.115B 530, A115

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201016113 2011

  11. [11]

    Ca \ n ameras R., et al., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201425128 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015A\

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425128 2015

  12. [12]

    C., Kinney A

    Calzetti D., Armus L., Bohlin R. C., Kinney A. L., Koornneef J., Storchi-Bergmann T., 2000, @doi [ ] 10.1086/308692 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ApJ...533..682C 533, 682

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1086/308692 2000

  13. [13]

    Calzetti D., et al., 2007, @doi [ ] 10.1086/520082 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2007ApJ...666..870C 666, 870

    work page doi:10.1086/520082 2007

  14. [14]

    L., Walter F., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-140953 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ARA\

    Carilli C. L., Walter F., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-140953 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ARA\

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-140953 2013

  15. [15]

    M., et al., 2012, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/761/2/139 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ApJ...761..139C 761, 139

    Casey C. M., et al., 2012, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/761/2/139 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ApJ...761..139C 761, 139

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/761/2/139 2012

  16. [16]

    Chen C.-C., et al., 2017, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/aa863a , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2017ApJ...846..108C 846, 108

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa863a 2017

  17. [17]

    Cicone C., et al., 2014, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201322464 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/\#abs/2014A&A...562A..21C 562, A21

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322464 2014

  18. [18]

    Cicone C., et al., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201424980 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/\#abs/2015A&A...574A..14C 574, A14

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201424980 2015

  19. [19]

    Cicone C., et al., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/aad32a , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018ApJ...863..143C 863, 143

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aad32a 2018

  20. [20]

    Colgan S. W. J., Haas M. R., Erickson E. F., Rubin R. H., Simpson J. P., Russell R. W., 1993, @doi [ ] 10.1086/172991 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/1993ApJ...413..237C 413, 237

    work page doi:10.1086/172991 1993

  21. [21]

    Combes F., et al., 2012, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201118750 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012A\

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118750 2012

  22. [22]

    Cormier D., et al., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201425207 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2015A&A...578A..53C 578, A53

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425207 2015

  23. [23]

    Cresci G., et al., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/799/1/82 , http://cdsads.u-strasbg.fr/abs/2015ApJ...799...82C 799, 82

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/799/1/82 2015

  24. [24]

    A., 2007, @doi [Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics] 10.1146/annurev.astro.45.051806.110615 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2007ARA&A..45..177C 45, 177

    Crowther P. A., 2007, @doi [Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics] 10.1146/annurev.astro.45.051806.110615 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2007ARA&A..45..177C 45, 177

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.45.051806.110615 2007

  25. [25]

    J., Poetrodjojo H., Ho I

    D'Agostino J. J., Poetrodjojo H., Ho I. T., Groves B., Kewley L., Madore B. F., Rich J., Seibert M., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/sty1676 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018MNRAS.479.4907D 479, 4907

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1676 2018

  26. [26]

    Daddi E., et al., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201425043 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015A\

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425043 2015

  27. [27]

    A., Helou G., Contursi A., Silbermann N

    Dale D. A., Helou G., Contursi A., Silbermann N. A., Kolhatkar S., 2001, @doi [ ] 10.1086/319077 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/\#abs/2001ApJ...549..215D 549, 215

    work page doi:10.1086/319077 2001

  28. [28]

    Dalla Vecchia C., Schaye J., 2008, @doi [ ] 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13322.x , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/\#abs/2008MNRAS.387.1431D 387, 1431

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13322.x 2008

  29. [29]

    Decarli R., et al., 2012, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/752/1/2 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2012ApJ...752....2D 752, 2

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/752/1/2 2012

  30. [30]

    Decarli R., et al., 2014, @doi [ ] 10.1088/2041-8205/782/2/L17 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2014ApJ...782L..17D 782, L17

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/782/2/l17 2014

  31. [31]

    D \' az-Santos T., et al., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/774/1/68 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2013ApJ...774...68D 774, 68

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/774/1/68 2013

  32. [32]

    D \' az-Santos T., et al., 2017, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/aa81d7 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2017ApJ...846...32D 846, 32

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa81d7 2017

  33. [33]

    Dietrich J., et al., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/sty2056 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018MNRAS.480.3562D 480, 3562

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2056 2018

  34. [34]

    M., 1998, @doi [ ] 10.1086/306339 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/1998ApJ...507..615D 507, 615

    Downes D., Solomon P. M., 1998, @doi [ ] 10.1086/306339 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/1998ApJ...507..615D 507, 615

    work page doi:10.1086/306339 1998

  35. [35]

    Ekstr \"o m S., et al., 2012, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201117751 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012A

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117751 2012

  36. [36]

    Elbaz D., et al., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201732370 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018A&A...616A.110E 616, A110

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732370 2018

  37. [37]

    Farrah D., et al., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/776/1/38 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2013ApJ...776...38F 776, 38

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/776/1/38 2013

  38. [38]

    Feltre A., Hatziminaoglou E., Fritz J., Franceschini A., 2012, @doi [ ] 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21695.x , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2012MNRAS.426..120F 426, 120

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21695.x 2012

  39. [39]

    C., Stacey G

    Ferkinhoff C., Hailey-Dunsheath S., Nikola T., Parshley S. C., Stacey G. J., Benford D. J., Staguhn J. G., 2010, @doi [ ] 10.1088/2041-8205/714/1/L147 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2010ApJ...714L.147F 714, L147

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/714/1/l147 2010

  40. [40]

    Ferkinhoff C., et al., 2011, @doi [ ] 10.1088/2041-8205/740/1/L29 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2011ApJ...740L..29F 740, L29

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/740/1/l29 2011

  41. [41]

    J., Sheth K., Hailey-Dunsheath S., Falgarone E., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/806/2/260 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2015ApJ...806..260F 806, 260

    Ferkinhoff C., Brisbin D., Nikola T., Stacey G. J., Sheth K., Hailey-Dunsheath S., Falgarone E., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/806/2/260 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2015ApJ...806..260F 806, 260

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/806/2/260 2015

  42. [42]

    A., Spinoglio L., Pereira-Santaella M., Malkan M

    Fern \'a ndez-Ontiveros J. A., Spinoglio L., Pereira-Santaella M., Malkan M. A., Andreani P., Dasyra K. M., 2016, @doi [The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series] 10.3847/0067-0049/226/2/19 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2016ApJS..226...19F 226, 19

    work page doi:10.3847/0067-0049/226/2/19 2016

  43. [43]

    B., 1965, @doi [ ] 10.1086/148317 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965ApJ...142..531F 142, 531

    Field G. B., 1965, @doi [ ] 10.1086/148317 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965ApJ...142..531F 142, 531

    work page doi:10.1086/148317 1965

  44. [44]

    Fischer J., et al., 2010, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201014676 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2010A&A...518L..41F 518, L41

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014676 2010

  45. [45]

    J., Bennett C

    Fixsen D. J., Bennett C. L., Mather J. C., 1999, @doi [ ] 10.1086/307962 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999ApJ...526..207F 526, 207

    work page doi:10.1086/307962 1999

  46. [46]

    T., Maddalena R

    Frayer D. T., Maddalena R. J., Ivison R. J., Smail I., Blain A. W., Vanden Bout P., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/aac49a , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018ApJ...860...87F 860, 87

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aac49a 2018

  47. [47]

    S., Ivison R

    Fu H., Jullo E., Cooray A., Bussmann R. S., Ivison R. J., et al., 2012, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/753/2/134 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ApJ...753..134F 753, 134

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/753/2/134 2012

  48. [48]

    E., et al., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stv1243 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015MNRAS.452..502G 452, 502

    Geach J. E., et al., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stv1243 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015MNRAS.452..502G 452, 502

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1243 2015

  49. [49]

    E., Ivison R

    Geach J. E., Ivison R. J., Dye S., Oteo I., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.3847/2041-8213/aae375 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018ApJ...866L..12G 866, L12

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aae375 2018

  50. [50]

    Genzel R., et al., 2010, @doi [ ] 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16969.x , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010MNRAS.407.2091G 407, 2091

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16969.x 2010

  51. [51]

    Ginsburg A., et al., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/aaa6d4 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018ApJ...853..171G 853, 171

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaa6d4 2018

  52. [52]

    M., Lacy M., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/806/2/218 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2015ApJ...806..218G 806, 218

    Glikman E., Simmons B., Mailly M., Schawinski K., Urry C. M., Lacy M., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/806/2/218 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2015ApJ...806..218G 806, 218

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/806/2/218 2015

  53. [53]

    F., Y ld z U

    Goldsmith P. F., Y ld z U. A., Langer W. D., Pineda J. L., 2015, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/814/2/133 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2015ApJ...814..133G 814, 133

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/814/2/133 2015

  54. [54]

    Graci \'a -Carpio J., et al., 2011, @doi [ ] 10.1088/2041-8205/728/1/L7 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2011ApJ...728L...7G 728, L7

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/728/1/l7 2011

  55. [55]

    E., Zakamska N

    Greene J. E., Zakamska N. L., Ho L. C., Barth A. J., 2011, @doi [ ] 10.1088/0004-637X/732/1/9 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2011ApJ...732....9G 732, 9

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/732/1/9 2011

  56. [56]

    A ., Schilke P., Menten K., Cesarsky C., Booth R., 2006, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361:20065420 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2006A&A...454L..13G 454, L13

    G \"u sten R., Nyman L. A ., Schilke P., Menten K., Cesarsky C., Booth R., 2006, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361:20065420 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2006A&A...454L..13G 454, L13

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065420 2006

  57. [57]

    J., Oberst T

    Hailey-Dunsheath S., Nikola T., Stacey G. J., Oberst T. E., Parshley S. C., Bradford C. M., Ade P. A. R., Tucker C. E., 2008, @doi [ ] 10.1086/595840 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ApJ...689L.109H 689, L109

    work page doi:10.1086/595840 2008

  58. [58]

    J., Oberst T

    Hailey-Dunsheath S., Nikola T., Stacey G. J., Oberst T. E., Parshley S. C., Benford D. J., Staguhn J. G., Tucker C. E., 2010, @doi [ ] 10.1088/2041-8205/714/1/L162 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010ApJ...714L.162H 714, L162

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/714/1/l162 2010

  59. [59]

    C., et al., 2016, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stw614 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016MNRAS.458.4383H 458, 4383

    Harrington K. C., et al., 2016, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stw614 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016MNRAS.458.4383H 458, 4383

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stw614 2016

  60. [60]

    C., et al., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stx3043 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018MNRAS.474.3866H 474, 3866

    Harrington K. C., et al., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stx3043 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018MNRAS.474.3866H 474, 3866

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx3043 2018

  61. [61]

    T., Rowan-Robinson M., 1985, @doi [ ] 10.1086/184556 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985ApJ...298L...7H 298, L7

    Helou G., Soifer B. T., Rowan-Robinson M., 1985, @doi [ ] 10.1086/184556 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985ApJ...298L...7H 298, L7

    work page doi:10.1086/184556 1985

  62. [62]

    Herrera-Camus R., et al., 2016, @doi [ ] 10.3847/0004-637X/826/2/175 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2016ApJ...826..175H 826, 175

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-637x/826/2/175 2016

  63. [63]

    U., 2006, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361:20065413 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2006A&A...454L..21H 454, L21

    Heyminck S., Kasemann C., G \"u sten R., de Lange G., Graf U. U., 2006, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361:20065413 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2006A&A...454L..21H 454, L21

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065413 2006

  64. [64]

    C., Alexander D

    Hickox R. C., Alexander D. M., 2018, @doi [Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics] 10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051803 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/\#abs/2018ARA&A..56..625H 56, 625

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051803 2018

  65. [65]

    F., Hernquist L., Cox T

    Hopkins P. F., Hernquist L., Cox T. J., Kere s D., 2008, @doi [The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series] 10.1086/524362 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2008ApJS..175..356H 175, 356

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1086/524362 2008

  66. [66]

    R., Conley A., 2016, @doi [ ] 10.3847/0004-637X/829/2/93 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2016ApJ...829...93K 829, 93

    Kamenetzky J., Rangwala N., Glenn J., Maloney P. R., Conley A., 2016, @doi [ ] 10.3847/0004-637X/829/2/93 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2016ApJ...829...93K 829, 93

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-637x/829/2/93 2016

  67. [67]

    Kennicutt J. R. C., 1998, @doi [ ] 10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.189 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ARA&A..36..189K 36, 189

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.189 1998

  68. [68]

    C., Evans N

    Kennicutt R. C., Evans N. J., 2012, @doi [Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics] 10.1146/annurev-astro-081811-125610 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2012ARA&A..50..531K 50, 531

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081811-125610 2012

  69. [69]

    Kirkpatrick A., et al., 2017, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/aa911d , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2017ApJ...849..111K 849, 111

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa911d 2017

  70. [70]

    a mer I., Kasemann C., G \

    Klein B., Philipp S. D., Kr \"a mer I., Kasemann C., G \"u sten R., Menten K. M., 2006, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361:20065415 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2006A&A...454L..29K 454, L29

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065415 2006

  71. [71]

    Kruijssen J. M. D., Longmore S. N., 2013, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stt1634 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013MNRAS.435.2598K 435, 2598

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1634 2013

  72. [72]

    Lamarche C., et al., 2017, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/123 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2017ApJ...836..123L 836, 123

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/123 2017

  73. [73]

    Resolving Star Formation on Sub-Kiloparsec Scales in the High-Redshift Galaxy SDP.11 Using Gravitational Lensing

    Lamarche C., et al., 2018, preprint, https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018arXiv180909630L p. arXiv:1809.09630 ( @eprint arXiv 1809.09630 )

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2018

  74. [74]

    Leung T. K. D., et al., 2019, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/aaf860 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/\#abs/2019ApJ...871...85L 871, 85

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaf860 2019

  75. [75]

    Lu N., et al., 2017, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4365/aa6476 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ApJS..230....1L 230, 1

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aa6476 2017

  76. [76]

    Lu N., et al., 2018, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4357/aad3c9 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2018ApJ...864...38L 864, 38

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aad3c9 2018

  77. [77]

    Madau and Dickinson, 2014, @doi [ ] 10.1146/annurev-astro-081811-125615 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ARA\

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081811-125615 2014

  78. [78]

    Maeder A., Meynet G., 2000, , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2000A&A...361..159M 361, 159

    work page 2000

  79. [79]

    E., et al., 2016, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stv2931 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2016MNRAS.456.4533M 456, 4533

    Magdis G. E., et al., 2016, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stv2931 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2016MNRAS.456.4533M 456, 4533

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2931 2016

  80. [80]

    Magnelli B., et al., 2014, @doi [ ] 10.1051/0004-6361/201322217 , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014A

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322217 2014

Showing first 80 references.