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Planet Formation Theory in the Era of ALMA and Kepler: from Pebbles to Exoplanets
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Our understanding of planet formation has been rapidly evolving in recent years. The classical planet formation theory, developed when the only known planetary system was our own Solar System, has been revised to account for the observed diversity of the exoplanetary systems. At the same time, the increasing observational capabilities of the young stars and their surrounding disks bring new constraints on the planet formation process. In this chapter, we summarize the new information derived from the exoplanets population and the circumstellar disks observations. We present the new developments in planet formation theory, from dust evolution to the growth of planetary cores by accretion of planetesimals, pebbles, and gas. We review the state-of-the-art models for the formation of diverse planetary systems, including the population synthesis approach which is necessary to compare theoretical model outcomes to the exoplanet population. We emphasize that the planet formation process may not be spatially uniform in the disk and there are preferential locations for the formation of planetesimals and planets. Outside of these locations, a significant fraction of solids is not growing past the pebble-sizes. The reservoir of pebbles plays an important role in the growth of planetary cores in the pebble accretion process. The timescale of the emergence of massive planetary cores is an important aspect of the present models and it is likely that the cores within one disk form at different times. In addition, there is growing evidence that the first planetary cores start forming early, during the circumstellar disk buildup process.
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Cited by 31 Pith papers
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The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): I. Program Overview and Summary of First Results
First systematic ALMA survey of protoplanetary gas finds median gas disk mass declining from about 6 Jupiter masses in under 1 Myr disks to about 0.5 Jupiter masses by 2 to 6 Myr, with a non-monotonic gas-to-dust rati...
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Magnetohydrodynamical opening of dust traps in protoplanetary disks
Large-scale magnetic stresses can overwhelm the pressure-bump trap and force dust to drift inward, "opening" dust traps in wide, low-contrast rings.
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Planetesimal Formation Across the Stellar Mass Spectrum and its Influence on Exoplanet-Inherited Volatile Budgets
Discs around 0.1 M⊙ M-dwarfs form all their planetesimals within the 26Al half-life, so the resulting planetesimals—and likely rocky planets—are dehydrated and volatile-poor.
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Dynamically Selected Mass-Radius Relationship for Low Mass Exoplanets
Planets inferred to have suffered giant collisions are more massive than pristine ones but retain comparable hydrogen envelope fractions, implying collisions occurred before disk gas dispersal.
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Probing disk dynamics and dust evolution through shadows in protoplanetary disks: A case study of the HD 142527 disk
Shadow lag measurements in HD 142527 yield an outer-disk cooling time of 20-90 yr (t_cool Ω_K = 0.1-0.4), implying maximum dust grain sizes of ~0.1-1 mm and VSI-sustaining turbulence.
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Sulfur photochemistry observationally traces mantle redox states of rocky planets
Photochemical SO2 in rocky exoplanet atmospheres produces JWST-detectable absorption features at 4 and 7–9 μm that trace the mantle's oxidation state, linking observed spectra to planetary interiors.
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Preferential alignment of Class 0, Class I protostellar disks in multiple systems across nine nearby molecular clouds
Disks around young stars in binary and higher-order multiple systems are preferentially aligned out to 6000 AU, implying turbulent fragmentation alone cannot explain how most multiples form.
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The Longest-period Young Transiting Exoplanets. A Duo of Puffy Giants inside a Debris Disk
HD 114082 hosts two puffy, moderate-to-low-mass giants on nearly circular, coplanar, near-resonant orbits of 225.55 and ~314 days, the longest-period young transiting exoplanets known.
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Baryon Asymmetry from Electroweak-Symmetric Domain Walls
Electroweak-symmetric domain walls produce the observed baryon asymmetry via CP-violating semiclassical forces, transport, sphalerons, and interference between the two wall faces in a singlet-extended Standard Model.
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Azimuthal Dust Polarization from Aerodynamically Aligned Grains as Evidence for the Streaming Instability in Protoplanetary Disks
In streaming-instability simulations, gas-dust relative flow becomes azimuthal wherever dust-to-gas ratio exceeds one, so birdie-aligned prolate grains naturally emit the azimuthal polarization seen in disks like HL Tau.
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The Impact of External Radiation on the Inner Disk Chemistry of Planet Formation
External UV radiation up to 10^4 G0 barely changes the inner-disk chemistry of a typical planet-forming disk, but at 10^6 G0 the disk warms, snowlines move inward, and the midplane chemistry resets to atoms and simple...
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Detailed Microwave Continuum Spectra from Bright Protoplanetary Disks in Taurus
Dense 4-360 GHz spectra of eight Taurus disks reveal steep cm-wavelength dust spectra, implying millimeter fluxes are optically thick and standard disk dust masses are underestimated by about 10x.
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SMA and NOEMA reveal asymmetric sub-structure in the protoplanetary disk of IRAS23077+6707
First sub-arcsecond millimeter images of IRAS 23077+6707 reveal a north-south brightness asymmetry and radial substructure, possibly from an eccentric disk with e~0.26.
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The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): XI. Beam-corrected gas disk sizes from fitting 12CO moment zero maps
Beam-corrected gas-to-dust size ratios are similar or slightly smaller in older Upper Sco disks than in younger Lupus disks, contrary to dust evolution predictions.
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The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): X. Dust Substructures, Disk Geometries, and Dust-disk Radii
Analysis of 30 protoplanetary disks finds dust substructures in about 80% of resolved young Class I disks and a rising fraction of large inner dust cavities in older regions, suggesting early and efficient planet formation.
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The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): VII. Testing accretion mechanisms from disk population synthesis
Population synthesis of ALMA disk masses and sizes favors MHD disk-wind-driven accretion over turbulence-driven accretion with photoevaporation.
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The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): V. Protoplanetary gas disk masses
Median protoplanetary disk gas mass falls from about 0.007 solar masses in Ophiuchus (under 1 Myr) to about 0.0007 to 0.0009 solar masses in Lupus and Upper Sco (1 to 6 Myr), with carbon monoxide depleted about tenfol...
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The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): III. Dust and Gas Disk Properties in the Lupus Star-forming Region
Deep ALMA observations of 10 Lupus disks detect rare CO isotopologues and N2H+, revealing correlations between gas and dust fluxes and giving gas-to-dust mass ratios of 10 to 100.
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The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): II. Dust and Gas Disk Properties in the Ophiuchus Star-forming Region
ALMA observations of 10 embedded disks in Ophiuchus show that C18O and C17O gas radii are 1.5 to 2.5 times larger than dust radii, implying dust evolution begins during the embedded phase.
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A Resonant Beginning for the Solar System Terrestrial Planets
Simulations show an early resonant chain of terrestrial planets, including Theia, can be broken by the giant planet instability and yield a Moon-forming impact, with the present 3.05 Mars-Venus period ratio inherited ...
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Characterizing the oxidation state of rocky exoplanets with the Large Interferometer for Exoplanets (LIFE)
LIFE baseline mid-IR observations of Earth-sized planets at 10 pc can retrieve CO2, CH4, and NH3 well enough to distinguish mantle redox states from IW-6 to IW+6 under the paper's modeling assumptions.
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Water gas discs in exo-asteroid belts
Water vapour from exo-asteroid belts around solar-mass and heavier stars can supply ocean-scale water to inner planets and remain detectable for tens of Myr with current facilities.
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Local three-dimensional simulations of the convective overstability in protoplanetary discs
The manuscript's abstract describes a protoplanetary disc simulation study, but the body is a mathematics paper on Prandtl spirals, so the claimed results are unsupported.
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Partial Differentiation of Callisto as Possible Evidence for Pebble Accretion
Callisto's partially differentiated interior is more naturally explained by pebble accretion than by satellitesimal accretion, giving a potential fossil test of planet formation.
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Unstable magnetospheric accretion on the T Tauri star TW Hya
TW Hya’s large-scale field is a ~0.83 kG tilted dipole that varies yearly; accretion is unstable (rmag/rcor ≈ 0.33–0.40) and no close-in planet is detected above ~0.3–1 Mjup.
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Connecting Planetary Composition with Formation: a New Paradigm Emerges
A synthesis review argues that MHD disk winds, not turbulence, dominate disk evolution and planet formation, linking observed disk structures to exoplanet composition and orbits.
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Cradle of Life: From the Formation of Stars to Habitable Worlds with the SKAO
A working-group chapter lays out planned SKAO observations linking star formation, planet formation, exoplanet magnetospheres, and the search for life.
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Evolution and Observable Properties of Rocky Planet Atmospheres
Rocky exoplanet atmospheric composition encodes interior, surface, escape, photochemical, and biological history, so coupled-process models are required to interpret mass-radius and spectral data.
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On Linking Planet Formation Models, Protoplanetary Disk Properties, and Mature Gas Giant Exoplanet Atmospheres
A workshop synthesis concludes that linking gas giant exoplanet atmospheres to formation histories requires multiple elemental abundance tracers, not a single C/O ratio, and identifies the most pressing open questions.
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An Introduction to Dust Evolution and Vertical Transport in Protoplanetary Disks
A tutorial that reviews the physics and observational methods for measuring dust sizes and vertical settling in protoplanetary disks.
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The Future of Solar modelling: requirements for a new generation of solar models
A community review that identifies key uncertainties in solar modelling and outlines priorities for future progress.
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