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REVIEW 4 major objections 5 minor 234 references

Cryoscope: A Cryogenic Infrared Survey Telescope in Antarctica

T0 review · 4 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-08 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read A cryogenic 1.2 m telescope could sweep the infrared sky in 13 hours

desk verdict A genuinely novel cryogenic wide-field Kdark concept with a transparent sensitivity calculation, whose headline survey speed still rests on the unmeasured Dome C sky brightness. read the letter →

arxiv 2502.06950 v2 pith:7ZRRQDAP submitted 2025-02-10 astro-ph.IM astro-ph.EPastro-ph.HEastro-ph.SR

Mansi M. Kasliwal , Nicholas Earley , Roger Smith , Tristan Guillot , Tony Travouillon , Jason Fucik , Lyu Abe , Timothee Greffe
show 53 more authors
Abdelkrim Agabi Michael C.B. Ashley Amaury H.M.J. Triaud Samaporn Tinyanont Sarah Antier Philippe Bendjoya Rohan Bhattarai Rob Bertz James Brugger Artem Burdanov Ilaria Caiazzo Benoit Carry Luca Casagrande Brad Cenko Jeff Cooke Kishalay De Richard Dekany Vincent Deloupy Damien Dornic Lauren Fahey Don Figer Kenneth Freeman Danielle Frostig Matthew J. Graham Maximilian Günther David Hale Joss Bland-Hawthorn Giulia Illuminati Jacob Jencson Viraj Karambelkar Renee Key Ryan M. Lau Maggie Li Philip Lubin Reston Nash Don Neill Rishi Pahuja Elena Pian Antonio de Ugarte Postigo Mitsuko Roberts Hector Rodriguez Sam Rose Ashley J. Ruiter François-Xavier Schmider Robert A. Simcoe Robert Stein Olga Suarez Edward N. Taylor Bob Weber Linqing Wen Julien de Wit Ray Zarzaca Jake Zimmer
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.IMastro-ph.EPastro-ph.HEastro-ph.SR
keywords infraredsurveytelescopeKdarkbandAntarcticastronomyDomeCcryogenicopticalpathtime-domainkilonovadetectionvolumetricspeed
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper proposes Cryoscope, a 1.2 m aperture survey telescope to be stationed at Dome C, Antarctica, and argues that a design which cryogenically cools the entire optical path can make the telescope's own infrared glow negligible compared with the sky. This would let a modest ground-based telescope reach a Kdark point-source depth of 21.9 mag AB over roughly 20,000 square degrees every 13 hours of Antarctic winter, with a volumetric survey speed that matches or exceeds the major planned wide-field surveyors across the ultraviolet-optical-infrared range. The authors care because no existing or planned facility can simultaneously deliver deep, wide, fast, and red (>2 µm) time-domain coverage; Cryoscope is designed to fill that gap for kilonovae, exoplanets around cool stars, obscured transients, and solar system science. A fifth-scale Pathfinder, scheduled for deployment in December 2026, is the test of whether the enabling assumptions hold.

What carries the argument

Kdark is the 2.2–2.5 µm window where the Antarctic sky is darkest because airglow lines disappear; the paper optimizes a filter for this window. The load-bearing mechanism is a double-meniscus corrector: a pair of meniscus lenses at the entrance corrects the spherical primary's aberrations, and the second, convex meniscus doubles as the vacuum window, so the evacuated telescope replaces the usual detector cryostat and the entire optical path can be held at cryogenic temperature (~100 K). Ellipsoidal mirror baffles reflect about 70% of the window's thermal emission back to the window to prevent condensation, while heated external baffles and dry air manage the remaining heat loss. A first-principles estimate in the appendix shows that at equal temperatures the telescope walls would deliver roughly 10× more power to a detector pixel than the sky, so cryocooling is what keeps the sky as the dominant background; the Pathfinder is the instrument built to demonstrate this and to measure the Dome C sky.

What would settle it

Measure the Kdark sky brightness at Dome C through a full winter season using the Pathfinder's reflective-cap background test and on-sky images; if the measured sky background is brighter than the South Pole spectrum adopted in the sensitivity model, the claimed 21.9 mag depth and $5.24\times10^4$ Mpc$^3$/s survey speed fall in direct proportion, with a factor-2.5 increase in sky brightness costing about one magnitude of depth.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The paper's central claim is that Cryoscope will survey the accessible southern sky (≈20,000 deg$^2$) to a 5σ Kdark point-source depth of 21.9 mag AB every 13 hours continuously during the Antarctic winter, corresponding to a volumetric survey speed of $5.24\times10^4$ Mpc$^3$/s at $M_{AB}=-19$. In a 1-hour stack the same telescope reaches 24.1 mag AB, while the 26 cm Pathfinder reaches 20.2 mag AB in 1 hour and 18.0 mag AB in a 120 s visit. The claim is that this performance, achieved by cooling the whole telescope to roughly 100 K and exploiting the Kdark window between airglow lines, lets a 1.2 m ground telescope outperform much larger planned facilities for high-cadence infrared time-domain astronomy.

Load-bearing premise

The headline depths and survey speeds assume the Kdark sky at Dome C is at least as dark as the South Pole sky measured decades ago, and probably darker, but this is an expectation rather than a measurement at Dome C; the Pathfinder's stated critical objective is to make that measurement.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • Full-scale Cryoscope can tile the ≈20,000 deg$^2$ southern sky to 21.9 mag AB (5σ, Kdark) every 13 hours through the winter, generating an hourly-cadence infrared movie of the southern sky.
  • At $M_{AB}=-19$ its volumetric survey speed is $5.24\times10^4$ Mpc$^3$/s, about 1.4× the stated speed of the reddest Rubin filter and 48× the stated speed of the reddest Roman reference-survey channel.
  • A 1-hour coadded stack reaches 24.1 mag AB, so the same telescope serves as both a fast shallow surveyor and a deep infrared imager.
  • Simulations for the fifth gravitational-wave observing run indicate Cryoscope would detect kilonova counterparts to all neutron star mergers within 300 Mpc regardless of localization area, and to well-localized mergers out to 1 Gpc.
  • The Pathfinder is designed to retire the key risks before 2030: it must show diffraction-limited cold image quality, prove telescope self-emission is below the sky background, avoid condensation on the window, and directly measure the Kdark sky brightness at Dome C.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the Pathfinder confirms the assumed Kdark sky brightness, the same cryogenic optical-path architecture could be scaled to other dark infrared windows or to larger apertures; the dominant cost would shift from thermal background control to tiling detectors.
  • A sky only modestly brighter than assumed would not erase Antarctica's advantage over temperate sites, but it would shrink the claimed depth and survey speed and would move the comparison against space-based surveyors.
  • A winter of continuous Kdark monitoring would also constrain atmospheric and thermal background variability at Dome C, data that would sharpen predictions for any future Antarctic infrared facility.
  • Cryoscope's cadence and depth are naturally complementary to optical synoptic surveys; joint optical-plus-Kdark light curves could cleanly separate dust-obscured, red, and fast-fading transients from the optically selected population.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

4 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper presents Cryoscope, a proposed 1.2 m cryogenic survey telescope with a 49.6 deg^2 field of view operating in the Kdark bandpass at Dome C, Antarctica. The central claim is that by cooling the entire optical path and exploiting the dark Antarctic sky, Cryoscope will reach a 5-sigma point-source depth of 21.9 mag AB in a 120 s visit, survey ~20,000 deg^2 every 13 hours, and achieve a volumetric survey speed of 5.24e4 Mpc^3/s at M_AB = -19, matching or exceeding the survey speeds of UVEX, Rubin, Roman, SPHEREx, and NEO Surveyor. The paper describes the optical-thermal design, the HELLSTAR detector concept, the current laboratory status of a fifth-scale Pathfinder, nine science cases, and appendices containing the survey-speed calculation, a first-principles thermal-background argument, and AB-to-Vega conversions. The Pathfinder is scheduled for deployment at Dome C in December 2026, with a stated critical objective of measuring the Kdark sky brightness over a winter season.

Significance. If the performance projections are realized, Cryoscope would be scientifically significant: a ground-based 1.2 m telescope with a cryogenic optical path could open a new high-cadence, wide-field window in the 2.25-2.5 micron window, with clear applications to kilonovae, obscured core-collapse supernovae, exoplanets around cool stars, and solar system science. The paper is commendably concrete in several places: Appendix A and Table A1 give a parameterized survey-speed calculation, the Pathfinder optical tests are described in quantitative detail (0.28 wave rms at 632.8 nm, predicted 95% Strehl at 2.4 microns), and the planned Pathfinder mission explicitly identifies the Kdark sky measurement as a critical objective. These strengths make the design and its risk-reduction plan useful to the community even before the site measurement exists. However, the headline depth and survey-speed numbers are projections that scale directly with an assumed Dome C sky brightness, and the detector parameters used in the calculation are partly unverified goals rather than demonstrated performance.

major comments (4)
  1. [Section 2.1 and Figure 3 caption] The central performance claims in the abstract, Section 1, and Table A1 (21.9 mag depth, 20,000 deg^2 in 13 hours, volumetric survey speed 5.24e4 Mpc^3/s) depend on the assumed Kdark sky brightness at Dome C. The text states that the sky brightness at Dome C is 'expected to be even lower' than the South Pole spectrum measured by Ashley et al. (1996) and Nguyen et al. (1996), but no Dome C measurement or quantitative lower envelope is provided. For a background-limited point source, a factor-of-2 error in sky brightness changes the limiting magnitude by ~0.75 mag and the volumetric survey speed by roughly a factor of 3, so the comparisons against UVEX, Rubin, Roman, SPHEREx, and NEO Surveyor are currently design projections under an unmeasured assumption. The paper should present these claims as conditional on the assumed sky brightness, and should add a sensitivity table showing depth and survey speed for a plausible range of Kdark sky brightness values, including the case where Dome C is no darker than the South Pole.
  2. [Section 2.3 versus Table 2] There is a numerical inconsistency in the focal plane description. Section 2.3 states that a 9x6 mosaic of 4Kx6K HELLSTAR detectors creates a 36Kx36K, or 1.36 gigapixel, focal plane, while Table 2 lists the Cryoscope focal plane area as 604 Mpix with a 49.6 deg^2 field of view and a 1.03 arcsec/pixel plate scale. The survey-speed calculation uses the Table 2 values, so the headline number is internally consistent with one of the two descriptions, but the detector mosaic count, pixel count, and field of view need to be reconciled. This ambiguity matters for the cost estimate and for verifying that the stated detector format can actually tile the stated focal plane.
  3. [Section 2.3 and Table 1] The sensitivity calculation appears to use HELLSTAR detector parameters that are listed in Table 1 as 'goals' rather than demonstrated performance. The text says the final design 'delivers' read noise of 7 e- in Fowler-16, QE near 90%, and dark current of 0.04 e-/s/pixel, but Table 1 lists HELLSTAR goals of 10 e- read noise, 0.01 e-/s/pixel dark current, and >=90% QE, with the only measured SATIN results coming from smaller 1Kx1K and 2Kx2K devices. The paper should state explicitly which parameter values enter the Table 2 depth calculations, and should quantify how the depth and survey speed change if HELLSTAR achieves only the demonstrated SATIN performance rather than the goals.
  4. [Appendix B, Equations (B11)-(B12)] The first-principles argument that thermal self-emission is about 10x the sky power when wall and sky temperatures are equal is useful as a sanity check, but the main text's depth calculations instead integrate the South Pole sky spectrum, so the relationship between Appendix B and Table 2 should be stated more clearly. In particular, Equation (B12) assumes equal wall and sky temperatures, while the right panel of Figure B1 shows that the survey speed saturates at low wall temperatures only for bright skies; the conclusion that 'cryocooling ensures that survey speed is always maximized' should be tied to the actual assumed Dome C sky brightness rather than to the blackbody comparison alone.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Figure 3 caption] The claim that the Dome C sky brightness is 'expected to be even lower due to its higher elevation and colder temperatures' is presented without a supporting citation or quantitative model; adding a reference to site-testing literature or a stated assumption would clarify the status of this expectation.
  2. [Table 2 title] The Table 2 title contains a typo: 'Crysocope' should be 'Cryoscope'.
  3. [Section 4.3, stellar mass black holes paragraph] The text refers to 'a Wolf Rayet (WF) star'; the standard abbreviation is WR, so this should be corrected.
  4. [Section 3.1, cryocooler discussion] The description of higher-than-expected detector temperatures and the plan to first use a liquid nitrogen solution is useful, but the text does not state the measured versus required detector temperature values; adding these numbers would make the risk and mitigation path clearer.
  5. [Appendix A, Table A1] The footnote explaining the Roman GBTDS visit time is necessarily approximate, but the table would benefit from a column or footnote stating the assumed sky-background model for each survey, since the 5-sigma depths of different facilities are not all derived from the same atmospheric and telescope background assumptions.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 0.0 of 10

No significant circularity: performance projections follow from stated aperture, field of view, detector parameters, and an explicitly flagged sky-background assumption; the Pathfinder is designed to measure that sky brightness, not to fit these claims.

full rationale

The load-bearing performance claims (21.9 mag AB Kdark depth over ~20,000 deg2 every 13 hours; volumetric survey speed 5.24e4 Mpc3/s) are derived in Appendix A from Bellm (2016) volumetric survey speed formula, using the telescope's 1.2 m aperture, 49.6 deg2 field of view, 604 Mpix focal plane, 120 s visits, and a sky background taken from the measured South Pole spectrum of Ashley et al. (1996) and Nguyen et al. (1996). The paper explicitly marks the Dome C sky brightness as an expectation ('expected to be even lower due to its higher elevation and colder temperatures', Figure 3 caption) and lists measuring Kdark sky brightness over a full winter as a Pathfinder critical objective. This is an unverified input and a genuine correctness risk, but it is not circular: the depth and speed numbers are not fitted to a target result, nor is the assumed sky brightness defined in terms of the claimed survey speed. The self-citations to Fucik & Smith (2022) for the double-meniscus optical design, Earley et al. (2024) for wavefront testing, and Figer et al./Buntic et al. for SATIN/HELLSTAR detectors are prior engineering or measurement results that carry their own data and do not reduce to the present paper's conclusions. The apparent inconsistency between the 36Kx36K/1.36 gigapixel mosaic in Section 2.3 and the 604 Mpix/49.6 deg2 entry in Table 2 is a separate correctness issue, not a circularity. No circular step can be quoted because none exists.

Assumptions & free parameters 5 free parameters · 5 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central performance claim rests mainly on three unverified engineering and site assumptions: the Dome C Kdark sky brightness, the HELLSTAR detector mosaic performance, and the cryogenic thermal model. These are domain assumptions with stated evidence from prior measurements, not fitted parameters introduced to force the result. No circularity is apparent, but the assumptions are load-bearing and can be retired only by the Pathfinder and detector development.

free parameters (5)
  • Dome C Kdark sky brightness = Not measured; assumed at or below South Pole spectrum
    All point-source depths and survey speeds scale with this assumed background. The paper states it is expected to be lower than at South Pole, but no direct measurement is available before Pathfinder deployment.
  • Survey visit time = 120 s exposure plus 40 s overhead
    Chosen for the survey speed figure of merit in Table A1 and Figures 1 and 16; changes the areal speed but not the depth per exposure.
  • Total optical throughput = 0.83
    Used for depth and AB-Vega conversion in Appendix C; an assumed end-to-end throughput from the optical model.
  • HELLSTAR detector performance = QE > 90% in K-band, read noise 7-10 e-, dark current 0.04 e-/s
    Full Cryoscope focal plane depends on 4Kx6K HELLSTAR mosaic performance, which is listed as goals in Table 1; only smaller SATIN devices have been demonstrated on sky.
  • Cryostat wall temperature = 100 K
    The design operating temperature for the Pathfinder optics core; Appendix B shows wall emission becomes subdominant only below about -80 C, and the cryocooler performance is still being improved.
assumptions (5)
  • domain assumption K-band sky background at Dome C is at least as low as measured at South Pole and likely lower due to higher elevation and colder temperatures
    Invoked in Section 2.1 and Figure 3 caption; no direct Kdark measurement at Dome C exists yet, and all depths and survey speeds use this assumption.
  • domain assumption Thermal self-emission of the cryostat is dominated by the walls and can be modeled as a blackbody cylinder, with wall temperature cold enough to be subdominant to the assumed sky
    Appendix B estimates Pwall/Psky and concludes the telescope must be colder than about -80 C; this is not yet validated on sky at Dome C and is one of the Pathfinder's critical objectives.
  • domain assumption HELLSTAR 4Kx6K HgCdTe-on-Si detectors will meet or exceed SATIN performance when fabricated
    Table 1 lists HELLSTAR goals; only 1K and 2K SATIN devices have been demonstrated on sky, and the 9x6 mosaic focal plane is not yet built.
  • standard math Volumetric survey speed formula and LambdaCDM cosmology from Bellm (2016) and astropy are valid for comparing surveys
    Appendix A uses a published figure of merit with stated cosmology, K-correction, and apparent magnitude limits.
  • domain assumption Dome C boundary-layer seeing of about 0.25 arcsec above 20-30 m is achieved for a telescope on a 25 m tower
    Section 2.1 and Section 5 describe the full-scale observatory as a 25 m tower concept; this design is not yet built or validated.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Cryoscope: A Cryogenic Infrared Survey Telescope in Antarctica." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/7ZRRQDAP

@misc{pith2026250206950,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Cryoscope: A Cryogenic Infrared Survey Telescope in Antarctica},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/7ZRRQDAP}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2502.06950}
}
abstract

We present Cryoscope--a new 50 deg$^2$ field-of-view, 1.2 m aperture, $K_{dark}$ survey telescope to be located at Dome C, Antarctica. Cryoscope has an innovative optical-thermal design wherein the entire telescope is cryogenically cooled. Cryoscope also explores new detector technology to cost-effectively tile the full focal plane. Leveraging the dark Antarctic sky and minimizing telescope thermal emission, Cryoscope achieves unprecedented deep, wide, fast and red observations, matching and exceeding volumetric survey speeds from the Ultraviolet Explorer, Vera Rubin Observatory, Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, SPHEREx, and NEO Surveyor. By providing coverage beyond wavelengths of 2 $\mu$m, we aim to create the most comprehensive dynamic movie of the most obscured reaches of the Universe. Cryoscope will be a dedicated discovery engine for electromagnetic emission from coalescing compact binaries, Earth-like exoplanets orbiting cold stars, and multiple facets of time-domain, stellar and solar system science. In this paper, we describe the scientific drivers and technical innovations for this new discovery engine operating in the $K_{dark}$ passband, why we choose to deploy it in Antarctica, and the status of a fifth-scale prototype designed as a Pathfinder to retire technological risks prior to full-scale implementation. We plan to deploy the Cryoscope Pathfinder to Dome C in December 2026 and the full-scale telescope by 2030.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2502.06950 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Volumetric survey speed of Cryoscope and the prototype Cryoscope Pathfinder compared to the Rubin Ob￾servatory, Ultraviolet Explorer (UVEX), the Roman space telescope (Galactic bulge and high-latitude time domain sur￾veys), Euclid space telescope, SPHEREx all-sky survey, and NEO Surveyor up to 5.2 µm. Refer to Appendix A for sur￾vey parameters in this calculation. sub-millimeter observations and high-energy particle… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Cryoscope’s active field-of-view exceeds other sur￾veys in near-infrared wavelengths between 2–2.55 µm. Given the linear-variable filters (LVF) on SPHEREx, two of its six detector bands provide coverage in the K-band (Hui et al. 2024). We approximate field-of-view in these spectral chan￾nels, excluding the slight curvature in the wavelength re￾sponse across detector bands. thermal inversion that spans a few tens of … view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Measured infrared sky background from the South Pole taken from Ashley et al. (1996) and sky trans￾mission from Hidas et al. (2000). The Kdark filter response was optimized to exploit the window between 2.2 and 2.5 µm over the Antarctic plateau, similar to the methods in Li et al. (2016). The sky brightness at Dome C is expected to be even lower due to its higher elevation and colder temperatures. • Convenient logis… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (14 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Cross-section of the Cryoscope Pathfinder, showing the major components of the design. The two corrector meniscus lenses at the entrance aperture correct for aberrations from the spherical primary mirror, with the 2nd corrector also serving as a window into an evacuate…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Ray tracing demonstrating Cryoscope’s baffling scheme. The second corrector element (the window) is a source of thermal radiation (green rays). The ellipsoidal mirror baffles are designed to reflect the majority of the thermal radiation (blue) back to the window which …
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Quantum efficiency of a SATIN detector that uses HgCdTe deposited on silicon. SATIN is the infrared detector development program leading to HELLSTAR. thermal background emission from the telescope itself to remain sky-background-limited. The Cryoscope Pathfinder has be…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Left: Color-composite JHK image of M42 obtained with a 1Kx1K version of a SATIN detector using HgCdTe deposited on silicon. The central four bright stars represent the Trapezium. The red object just above the center is the Becklin-Neugebaur object, demonstrating good s…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Left: Mechanical layout of warm bench test setup of end-to-end system for interferometric wavefront measurement. Right: Optical layout of the test setup [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_8.png]
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Top left: The design delivers Strehl ratio > 99.9%. The inscribed black square is the detector footprint. Bottom left: 95% Strehl is predicted from surface measurements of optics as built. Right: On-axis measured wavefront error from Earley et al. (2024) in the top pan…
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Left: An interior look into the Cryoscope Pathfinder. The gold-plated aluminum spherical primary mirror lies in the background. The detector housing, prior to detector installation, is shown in the foreground. The housing supports the field flattener doublet optimized…
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Left: ASTEP telescope and mount in operation (Photo: V. Deloupy, 14 June 2024). Middle: CAD design of Cryoscope Pathfinder on the twin ASTEP direct drive mount. The Pathfinder will be installed on a mount identical to the one used by ASTEP. Right: Installation by the …
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: shows that ASTEP and Cryoscope Pathfinder can be usefully combined to characterize transiting temperate exoplanets with orbital periods be￾yond tens of days. In addition, Cryoscope Pathfinder 1 10 100 1000 Period (days) 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Kmag 1 ppt/min 10 ppt/min 100 …
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Multi-band photometry of GW170817/AT2017gfo from Kasliwal et al. (2017). GW170817/AT2017gfo faded rapidly in the blue bands but was long-lived in the infrared. No Kdark data was obtained. Extrapolating from Ks using Cryoscope’s Kdark filter and the best-fit kilonova m…
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Model grids for kilonovae ejecta mass, velocity and lanthanide fraction (Kasen et al. 2017). Cryoscope will be sensitive to detecting kilonovae spanning a wide range of parameter space. All blue dots indicate the kilonova is brighter than −15 mag for more than two day…
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Three model kilonovae spectra shown at three snapshots in time after the explosion. The expected total optical throughput (right hand vertical axis) in the six Rubin filters is also shown, for comparison to that of Cryoscope’s Kdark [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_…
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Simulation of neutron star mergers for the fifth gravitational wave observing run planned at the end of this decade. Color-coding indicates the exposure time needed for Cryoscope to map the 90% GW localization area to find a kilonova brighter than −15 mag. Gray points…
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Estimated magnitudes for GRB afterglows in Kdark magnitudes derived from the sample of Kann et al. (2011) assuming a spectral slope of Fν ∼ 1/ν. These light curves are corrected for extinction, which gives us a more realistic view of what is to be expected in Kdark, w…

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