pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2604.16822 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-18 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Recognition: unknown

Dense Ionized Outflow with Five Narrow Components in a Dust-obscured Galaxy

Taketo Yoshida , Tohru Nagao , Yoshiki Toba , Naomichi Yutani , Thomas Bohn , Kohei Shibata , Nozomu Tamada
Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-10 07:14 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords dust-obscured galaxyionized outflownarrow-line regionphotoionization modelsemission-line ratioshigh-density gasactive galactic nucleivelocity components
0
0 comments X

The pith

Five narrow ionized outflow components in a dust-obscured galaxy show hydrogen densities of at least 10^5 cm^{-3}.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper reports the discovery of one of the most complex ionized outflows yet seen in a dusty active galaxy. The SDSS spectrum of J1010+3725 at redshift 0.282 displays five narrow [O III] components whose velocities span from -1475 to +507 km/s, plus a broad component. Multiple peaks appear in additional lines such as [O III] λ4363 and [Ne III] λ3868. Matching the observed flux ratios to photoionization models indicates that all five narrow components contain gas denser than 10^5 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeter. This places the outflows at the innermost part of the narrow-line region and shows they move at several distinct bulk speeds.

Core claim

The SDSS optical spectrum of the dust-obscured galaxy J1010+3725 at z = 0.282 shows five narrow components with one broad component in [O III] λ5007. Spectrum fitting reveals velocity shifts for the narrow components from −1475 to +507 km s^{-1}. Possible multiple peaks are observed in [O III] λ4363 and [Ne III] λ3868. Comparison of the measured emission-line flux ratios with photoionization models suggests that the five outflowing components are characterized by high hydrogen densities (≳ 10^5 cm^{-3}). Our results imply that the five highly dense gas components may be outflowing with multiple bulk velocities at the innermost part of the narrow-line region in J1010+3725.

What carries the argument

Emission-line flux ratios from [O III] and [Ne III] lines compared against photoionization models to derive hydrogen density for each velocity component.

If this is right

  • The ionized outflow in this dusty galaxy is more complex than the structures usually reported for similar objects.
  • All five narrow components share high densities and therefore occupy the inner narrow-line region.
  • The gas moves outward at five distinct bulk velocities rather than in a single smooth flow.
  • Such multi-component dense outflows can be identified when multiple lines are decomposed simultaneously.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Similar multi-velocity dense outflows may exist in other dust-obscured galaxies but remain hidden without careful line decomposition.
  • High densities could shorten the cooling time of the gas and alter how much momentum the outflow carries into the host galaxy.
  • Repeated observations over years might test whether the different velocity components change independently, revealing separate ejection episodes.

Load-bearing premise

The measured emission-line flux ratios arise purely from photoionization in the outflowing gas and the chosen models match the actual physical conditions without major contributions from shocks, varying dust, or geometry effects.

What would settle it

Higher-resolution spectra or independent density diagnostics that return values well below 10^5 cm^{-3} for the same components would show the high-density interpretation is incorrect.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.16822 by Kohei Shibata, Naomichi Yutani, Nozomu Tamada, Taketo Yoshida, Thomas Bohn, Tohru Nagao, Yoshiki Toba.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Thumbnail images of J1010+3725 with a size of 30′′ × 30′′ . GALEX (F UV and NUV ), SDSS (u, g, r, i, and z), 2MASS (J, H, and Ks), and WISE (W1, W2, W3, and W4) images are shown from top to bottom. North is up and east is to the left. sec. This object is seen in the images from SDSS g-band to 2MASS J-band but disappears in the 2MASS H-band and longer wavelength images, suggesting that the color of this obj… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: SED and spectrum of J1010+3725 (z = 0.282). The blue filled triangles, diamonds, squares, and circles represent GALEX, SDSS, 2MASS, WISE photometries, respectively. The blue opened pentagons denote the 5σ detection limits of AKARI. The gray line depicts the SDSS spectrum. The top-left inset shows a zoom-in view of the SDSS photometry and spectrum. 3.2. Spectral Properties [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Optical spectrum (black solid line) and its error (light-blue bar) of J1010+3725 obtained from SDSS. Panel (a) shows the full rest-frame wavelength coverage, whereas panels (b)–(e) present enlarged views around selected emission lines: (b) [Ne iii]λ3868, (c) [O iii]λ4363, (d) [O iii]λλ4959, 5007 and Hβ, and (e) Hα. 1.29. This fitted power-law continuum was subtracted from the spectrum before fitting each l… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Continuum-subtracted spectrum with the results of spectrum fitting for (a) [O iii]λλ4959, 5007 and Hβ, (b) [O iii]λ4363 and Hγ, and (c) [Ne iii]λ3868. The bold light-blue line represents the best-fit model. The orange and red lines correspond to the narrow and broad components for each line (see the legends), respectively. The vertical blue dotted line in panel (a) denotes the rest-frame wavelengths of eac… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Velocity dispersion (σ) as a function of velocity shift (v) for the narrow (left) and broad (right) [O iii]λ5007 components of J1010+3725 (filled red stars) and comparison samples. For comparison, Hot DOGs (Jun et al. 2020; dark-blue open squares), ERQs (Zakamska et al. 2016; violet open triangles), type 1 AGNs (Le et al. 2023; light-blue open circles), and IRAS F14394+5332E (Spence et al. 2018; pink open … view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Comparison between the non extinction-corrected) observed and modeled line ratios for [O iii]λ5007/[O iii]λ4363 and [O iii]λ5007/[Ne iii]λ3868. The upper and lower panels represent the NLS1 and BLS1 SED models, respectively. The models with Z⊙ and 2Z⊙ are shown in the left and right panels, respectively. The star and triangles represent the observed flux ratios with reliable (S/N > 3) and unreliable measur… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We present our discovery of a complex ionized outflow in SDSS J101034.28+372514.7 (J1010+3725), a dust-obscured galaxy (DOG) at $z=0.282$. The SDSS optical spectrum of J1010+3725 shows five narrow components with one broad component in [O{\,\sc iii}]$\lambda$5007, which represents one of the most complex outflow structures observed among dusty active galactic nuclei. Spectrum fitting shows that the five narrow components have a wide range of velocity shifts (from $-1475$ to $+507$ km s$^{-1}$). The possible multiple peaks are also observed in [O{\,\sc iii}]$\lambda$4363 and [Ne{\,\sc iii}]$\lambda$3868, which allows us to investigate the physical condition of the outflowing gas by comparing the measured emission-line flux ratios with photoionization models. The comparison suggests that the five outflowing components are characterized by high hydrogen densities ($\gtrsim 10^5$ cm$^{-3}$). Our results imply that the five highly dense gas components may be outflowing with multiple bulk velocities at the innermost part of the narrow-line region in J1010+3725.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 1 minor

Summary. The paper reports the discovery of a complex ionized outflow in the dust-obscured galaxy SDSS J101034.28+372514.7 (J1010+3725) at z=0.282. Using SDSS optical spectra, the [O III] λ5007 line is decomposed into five narrow components (velocity shifts -1475 to +507 km s^{-1}) plus one broad component. Possible multiple peaks in the weaker [O III] λ4363 and [Ne III] λ3868 lines enable measurement of per-component flux ratios, which are compared to photoionization model grids to infer high hydrogen densities (≳10^5 cm^{-3}) for each of the five outflow components, implying dense gas outflowing at multiple velocities in the innermost narrow-line region.

Significance. If the per-component density constraints hold, the result would be significant for AGN feedback studies in dust-obscured galaxies, documenting one of the most kinematically complex narrow-line outflows observed and providing direct evidence for unusually dense ionized gas. The analysis relies on public SDSS spectra and standard external photoionization grids, making the measurement reproducible and the predictions falsifiable with higher-S/N data.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract and spectrum-fitting section] Abstract and spectrum-fitting section: No quantitative fit statistics (χ², BIC, or posterior uncertainties), error budgets, or robustness tests are provided for the five-component decomposition of the diagnostic lines [O III] λ4363 and [Ne III] λ3868. The abstract refers only to 'possible multiple peaks', while the strong [O III] λ5007 decomposition is secure; without secure, statistically justified decomposition of the weak lines into the same five velocity components, the assigned fluxes and resulting density inferences are unreliable.
  2. [Photoionization comparison section] Photoionization comparison section: The high-density conclusion (≳10^5 cm^{-3}) rests on the assumption that the measured line ratios arise purely from photoionization in the outflowing gas. No tests are presented against alternative ionization mechanisms (e.g., shocks), geometry effects, or dust attenuation variations, which directly affects the load-bearing claim that each of the five components has high density.
minor comments (1)
  1. [Abstract and figures] The velocity range and component labeling in the abstract and figures would benefit from explicit tabulation of all five velocities with uncertainties for easy reference.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive and detailed review of our manuscript. We address each major comment below and indicate the revisions we will make to strengthen the paper.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract and spectrum-fitting section] Abstract and spectrum-fitting section: No quantitative fit statistics (χ², BIC, or posterior uncertainties), error budgets, or robustness tests are provided for the five-component decomposition of the diagnostic lines [O III] λ4363 and [Ne III] λ3868. The abstract refers only to 'possible multiple peaks', while the strong [O III] λ5007 decomposition is secure; without secure, statistically justified decomposition of the weak lines into the same five velocity components, the assigned fluxes and resulting density inferences are unreliable.

    Authors: We appreciate the referee highlighting the need for more rigorous statistical support for the decompositions of the weaker lines. The five narrow components plus broad component are securely required by the high-S/N [O III] λ5007 profile, and the weaker [O III] λ4363 and [Ne III] λ3868 lines show velocity features consistent with these components (hence our cautious use of 'possible multiple peaks' in the abstract). To address this, we will add quantitative fit statistics (χ², reduced χ², and BIC comparisons for different component numbers) for all lines in the revised spectrum-fitting section. We will also report flux uncertainties for each component and include robustness tests (e.g., refitting with four or six components and checking velocity stability). These additions will better justify assigning the same velocity components to the diagnostic lines for the density analysis. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Photoionization comparison section] Photoionization comparison section: The high-density conclusion (≳10^5 cm^{-3}) rests on the assumption that the measured line ratios arise purely from photoionization in the outflowing gas. No tests are presented against alternative ionization mechanisms (e.g., shocks), geometry effects, or dust attenuation variations, which directly affects the load-bearing claim that each of the five components has high density.

    Authors: We agree that the density inferences depend on the photoionization assumption, which is standard for high-ionization lines in AGN narrow-line regions. The observed [O III] and [Ne III] ratios align with the photoionization grids at high densities without requiring additional mechanisms. Shocks are disfavored because they would typically boost low-ionization lines (not prominent here) and produce broader profiles inconsistent with our narrow components. Geometry and dust effects are handled through the standard NLR model assumptions and use of reddening-insensitive ratios. To strengthen the manuscript, we will add a dedicated paragraph in the photoionization section discussing these assumptions, why shocks are unlikely, and the limitations of not fully exploring alternative geometries or variable dust. We will also note that future higher-S/N data could test these alternatives more rigorously. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: densities derived from external model comparison on observed line ratios

full rationale

The derivation begins with direct fitting of public SDSS spectra to decompose [O III] λ5007 into five narrow components plus one broad, notes possible peaks in [O III] λ4363 and [Ne III] λ3868, extracts per-component flux ratios, and compares those ratios to standard external photoionization grids. This produces the density estimate ≳10^5 cm^{-3} without any parameter being fitted to the target result and then relabeled as a prediction, without self-definitional loops, and without load-bearing self-citations that substitute for independent verification. The chain is self-contained against external benchmarks and does not reduce to its inputs by construction.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The density claim rests on the assumption that standard photoionization models correctly map observed line ratios to hydrogen density for the measured velocities; no new entities are introduced and the only free parameters are the component velocities and fluxes obtained from spectral decomposition.

free parameters (1)
  • component velocity shifts
    Five narrow components fitted to the [O III] profile with reported shifts from -1475 to +507 km/s
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Photoionization models accurately predict the observed line ratios for given density, ionization parameter, and velocity
    Invoked when comparing measured [O III] and [Ne III] ratios to grids to conclude n_H ≳ 10^5 cm^{-3}

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5553 in / 1317 out tokens · 50587 ms · 2026-05-10T07:14:31.245721+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

70 extracted references · 67 canonical work pages · 3 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    , keywords =

    Baldwin, J. A., Ferland, G. J., Martin, P. G., et al. 1991, ApJ, 374, 580, doi: 10.1086/170146

    work page doi:10.1086/170146 1991

  2. [2]

    E., & Hernquist, L

    Barnes, J. E., & Hernquist, L. E. 1991, ApJL, 370, L65, doi: 10.1086/185978

    work page doi:10.1086/185978 1991

  3. [3]

    H., White, R

    Becker, R. H., White, R. L., & Helfand, D. J. 1995, ApJ, 450, 559, doi: 10.1086/176166

    work page doi:10.1086/176166 1995

  4. [4]

    S., & Storchi-Bergmann, T

    Binette, L., Wilson, A. S., & Storchi-Bergmann, T. 1996, A&A, 312, 365

    1996

  5. [5]

    S., Dey, A., Borys, C., et al

    Bussmann, R. S., Dey, A., Borys, C., et al. 2009, ApJ, 705, 184, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/705/1/184

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/705/1/184 2009

  6. [6]

    and Clayton, Geoffrey C

    Cardelli, J. A., Clayton, G. C., & Mathis, J. S. 1989, ApJ, 345, 245, doi: 10.1086/167900

    work page doi:10.1086/167900 1989

  7. [7]

    , keywords =

    Chatzikos, M., Bianchi, S., Camilloni, F., et al. 2023, RMxAA, 59, 327, doi: 10.22201/ia.01851101p.2023.59.02.12

    work page doi:10.22201/ia.01851101p.2023.59.02.12 2023

  8. [8]

    M., Wright, E

    Cutri, R. M., Wright, E. L., Conrow, T., et al. 2021, VizieR Online Data Catalog: AllWISE Data Release (Cutri+ 2013), VizieR On-line Data Catalog: II/328. Originally published in: IPAC/Caltech (2013)

    2021

  9. [9]

    T., Dey, A., et al

    Desai, V., Soifer, B. T., Dey, A., et al. 2009, ApJ, 700, 1190, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/700/2/1190

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/700/2/1190 2009

  10. [10]

    T., Desai, V., et al

    Dey, A., Soifer, B. T., Desai, V., et al. 2008, ApJ, 677, 943, doi: 10.1086/529516

    work page doi:10.1086/529516 2008

  11. [11]

    A., & Sutherland, R

    Dopita, M. A., & Sutherland, R. S. 1996, ApJS, 102, 161, doi: 10.1086/192255

    work page doi:10.1086/192255 1996

  12. [12]

    2016, ApJ, 819, 115, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/819/2/115

    Dorodnitsyn, A., Kallman, T., & Proga, D. 2016, ApJ, 819, 115, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/819/2/115

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-637x/819/2/115 2016

  13. [13]

    Eisenhardt, P. R. M., Wu, J., Tsai, C.-W., et al. 2012, ApJ, 755, 173, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/755/2/173 11

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/755/2/173 2012

  14. [14]

    F., Han, Y., & Knudsen, K

    Fan, L., Jones, S. F., Han, Y., & Knudsen, K. K. 2017, PASP, 129, 124101, doi: 10.1088/1538-3873/aa8e91

    work page doi:10.1088/1538-3873/aa8e91 2017

  15. [15]

    , keywords =

    Finnerty, L., Larson, K., Soifer, B. T., et al. 2020, ApJ, 905, 16, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/abc3bf

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abc3bf 2020

  16. [16]

    and Lang, Dustin and Goodman, Jonathan , title =

    Foreman-Mackey, D., Hogg, D. W., Lang, D., & Goodman, J. 2013, PASP, 125, 306, doi: 10.1086/670067

    work page doi:10.1086/670067 2013

  17. [17]

    Ferland, G. J. 2023, Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society, 7, 246, doi: 10.3847/2515-5172/ad0e75

    work page doi:10.3847/2515-5172/ad0e75 2023

  18. [18]

    A Cosmological Framework for the Co-Evolution of Quasars, Supermassive Black Holes, and Elliptical Galaxies: I. Galaxy Mergers & Quasar Activity

    Hopkins, P. F., Hernquist, L., Cox, T. J., & Kereš, D. 2008, ApJS, 175, 356, doi: 10.1086/524362

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1086/524362 2008

  19. [19]

    G., & Storey, P

    Hummer, D. G., & Storey, P. J. 1987, MNRAS, 224, 801, doi: 10.1093/mnras/224.3.801

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/224.3.801 1987

  20. [20]

    , keywords =

    Jun, H. D., Assef, R. J., Bauer, F. E., et al. 2020, ApJ, 888, 110, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab5e7b

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab5e7b 2020

  21. [21]

    Kormendy, J., & Ho, L. C. 2013, ARA&A, 51, 511, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101811

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101811 2013

  22. [22]

    2023, ApJ, 950, 72, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/accc2b

    Kudoh, Y., Wada, K., Kawakatu, N., & Nomura, M. 2023, ApJ, 950, 72, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/accc2b

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/accc2b 2023

  23. [23]

    Le, H. A. N., Xue, Y., Lin, X., & Wang, Y. 2023, ApJ, 945, 59, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acb770

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acb770 2023

  24. [24]

    Leung, G. C. K., Coil, A. L., Rupke, D. S. N., & Perrotta, S. 2021, ApJ, 914, 17, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/abf4da

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abf4da 2021

  25. [25]

    J., Tsai, C.-W., et al

    Li, G., Assef, R. J., Tsai, C.-W., et al. 2024, ApJ, 971, 40, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad5317

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad5317 2024

  26. [26]

    A., & Greene, J

    Liu, X., Shen, Y., Strauss, M. A., & Greene, J. E. 2010, ApJ, 708, 427, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/708/1/427

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/708/1/427 2010

  27. [27]

    and Tremaine, S

    Magorrian, J., Tremaine, S., Richstone, D., et al. 1998, AJ, 115, 2285, doi: 10.1086/300353

    work page doi:10.1086/300353 1998

  28. [28]

    Marconi, A., & Hunt, L. K. 2003, ApJL, 589, L21, doi: 10.1086/375804

    work page doi:10.1086/375804 2003

  29. [29]

    , eprint =

    Martin, D. C., Fanson, J., Schiminovich, D., et al. 2005, ApJL, 619, L1, doi: 10.1086/426387

    work page Pith review doi:10.1086/426387 2005

  30. [30]

    T., Desai, V., et al

    Melbourne, J., Soifer, B. T., Desai, V., et al. 2012, AJ, 143, 125, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/143/5/125

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-6256/143/5/125 2012

  31. [31]

    A., Raymond, J

    Morse, J. A., Raymond, J. C., & Wilson, A. S. 1996, PASP, 108, 426, doi: 10.1086/133744

    work page doi:10.1086/133744 1996

  32. [32]

    Moshir, M., Kopman, G., & Conrow, T. A. O. 1992, IRAS Faint Source Survey, Explanatory supplement version 2

    1992

  33. [33]

    2007, PASJ, 59, S369, doi: 10.1093/pasj/59.sp2.S369

    Murakami, H., Baba, H., Barthel, P., et al. 2007, PASJ, 59, S369, doi: 10.1093/pasj/59.sp2.S369

    work page doi:10.1093/pasj/59.sp2.s369 2007

  34. [34]

    2001a, ApJ, 546, 744, doi: 10.1086/318300 —

    Nagao, T., Murayama, T., & Taniguchi, Y. 2001a, ApJ, 546, 744, doi: 10.1086/318300 —. 2001b, PASJ, 53, 629, doi: 10.1093/pasj/53.4.629 —. 2001c, ApJ, 549, 155, doi: 10.1086/319062

    work page doi:10.1086/318300

  35. [35]

    The Merger Rates and Mass Assembly Histories of Dark Matter Haloes in the Two

    Narayanan, D., Dey, A., Hayward, C. C., et al. 2010, MNRAS, 407, 1701, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16997.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16997.x 2010

  36. [36]

    M., Ivezi´ c,ˇZ., & Elitzur, M

    Nenkova, M., Sirocky, M. M., Ivezić, Ž., & Elitzur, M. 2008a, ApJ, 685, 147, doi: 10.1086/590482

    work page doi:10.1086/590482

  37. [37]

    2008b, ApJ, 685, 160, doi: 10.1086/590483

    Elitzur, M. 2008b, ApJ, 685, 160, doi: 10.1086/590483

    work page doi:10.1086/590483

  38. [38]

    , keywords =

    Noboriguchi, A., Nagao, T., Toba, Y., et al. 2019, ApJ, 876, 132, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab1754

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab1754 2019

  39. [39]

    , keywords =

    Perrotta, S., Hamann, F., Zakamska, N. L., et al. 2019, MNRAS, 488, 4126, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz1993

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1993 2019

  40. [40]

    L., Riedinger , J

    Pilbratt, G. L., Riedinger, J. R., Passvogel, T., et al. 2010, A&A, 518, L1, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201014759 Ramos Almeida, C., García-Bernete, I., Pereira-Santaella, M., et al. 2025, A&A, 698, A194, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202453549 Rodríguez Zaurín, J., Tadhunter, C. N., Rose, M., & Holt, J. 2013, MNRAS, 432, 138, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stt423

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014759 2010

  41. [41]

    2018, MNRAS, 474, 128, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx2590

    Rose, M., Tadhunter, C., Ramos Almeida, C., et al. 2018, MNRAS, 474, 128, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx2590

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2590 2018

  42. [42]

    P., Hamann, F., Zakamska, N

    Ross, N. P., Hamann, F., Zakamska, N. L., et al. 2015, MNRAS, 453, 3932, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stv1710

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1710 2015

  43. [43]

    , keywords =

    Sanders, D. B., Soifer, B. T., Elias, J. H., et al. 1988, ApJ, 325, 74, doi: 10.1086/165983

    work page doi:10.1086/165983 1988

  44. [44]

    , keywords =

    Skrutskie, M. F., Cutri, R. M., Stiening, R., et al. 2006, AJ, 131, 1163, doi: 10.1086/498708

    work page doi:10.1086/498708 2006

  45. [45]

    Spence, R. A. W., Tadhunter, C. N., Rose, M., & Rodríguez Zaurín, J. 2018, MNRAS, 478, 2438, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1046

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1046 2018

  46. [46]

    F., Jimenez R., Lahav O., 2000, @doi [ ] 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03692.x , http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000MNRAS.317..965H 317, 965

    Storey, P. J., & Zeippen, C. J. 2000, MNRAS, 312, 813, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03184.x STScI. 2013, GALEX/MCAT, STScI/MAST, doi: 10.17909/T9H59D

    work page doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03184.x 2000

  47. [47]

    2022, PASJ, 74, 1157, doi: 10.1093/pasj/psac061

    Suleiman, N., Noboriguchi, A., Toba, Y., et al. 2022, PASJ, 74, 1157, doi: 10.1093/pasj/psac061

    work page doi:10.1093/pasj/psac061 2022

  48. [48]

    2019, MNRAS, 488, 1813, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz1755

    Batcheldor, D. 2019, MNRAS, 488, 1813, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz1755

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1755 2019

  49. [49]

    2018, MNRAS, 478, 1558, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1064

    Tadhunter, C., Rodríguez Zaurín, J., Rose, M., et al. 2018, MNRAS, 478, 1558, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1064

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1064 2018

  50. [50]

    2019, The Astrophysical Journal, 877, 95, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab1b20

    Tanimoto, A., Ueda, Y., Odaka, H., et al. 2019, ApJ, 877, 95, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab1b20

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab1b20 2019

  51. [51]

    2017, ApJ, 850, 140, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa918a

    Toba, Y., Bae, H.-J., Nagao, T., et al. 2017, ApJ, 850, 140, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa918a

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa918a 2017

  52. [52]

    2016, ApJ, 820, 46, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/820/1/46

    Toba, Y., & Nagao, T. 2016, ApJ, 820, 46, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/820/1/46

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-637x/820/1/46 2016

  53. [53]

    2018, ApJ, 857, 31, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aab3cf

    Toba, Y., Ueda, J., Lim, C.-F., et al. 2018, ApJ, 857, 31, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aab3cf

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aab3cf 2018

  54. [54]

    A., et al

    Toba, Y., Nagao, T., Strauss, M. A., et al. 2015, PASJ, 67, 86, doi: 10.1093/pasj/psv057

    work page doi:10.1093/pasj/psv057 2015

  55. [55]

    2020, ApJ, 888, 8, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab5718 12

    Toba, Y., Yamada, S., Ueda, Y., et al. 2020, ApJ, 888, 8, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab5718 12

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab5718 2020

  56. [56]

    2022, A&A, 661, A15, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202141547

    Toba, Y., Liu, T., Urrutia, T., et al. 2022, A&A, 661, A15, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202141547

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141547 2022

  57. [57]

    2024, ApJ, 967, 65, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad32c6

    Toba, Y., Hashiguchi, A., Ota, N., et al. 2024, ApJ, 967, 65, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad32c6

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad32c6 2024

  58. [58]

    Tsai, C.-W., Eisenhardt, P. R. M., Wu, J., et al. 2015, ApJ, 805, 90, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/805/2/90

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/805/2/90 2015

  59. [59]

    doi:10.1088/0004-637X/758/1/66

    Wada, K. 2012, ApJ, 758, 66, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/758/1/66

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/758/1/66 2012

  60. [60]

    doi:10.3847/2041-8205/828/2/L19

    Wada, K., Schartmann, M., & Meijerink, R. 2016, ApJL, 828, L19, doi: 10.3847/2041-8205/828/2/L19

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8205/828/2/l19 2016

  61. [61]

    2009, ApJL, 705, L76, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/705/1/L76

    Wang, J.-M., Chen, Y.-M., Hu, C., et al. 2009, ApJL, 705, L76, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/705/1/L76

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/705/1/l76 2009

  62. [62]

    L., Eisenhardt, P

    Wright, E. L., Eisenhardt, P. R. M., Mainzer, A. K., et al. 2010, AJ, 140, 1868, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/140/6/1868 —. 2019, AllWISE Source Catalog, NASA IPAC DataSet, IRSA1, doi: 10.26131/IRSA1

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1088/0004-6256/140/6/1868 2010

  63. [63]

    , keywords =

    Wu, J., Tsai, C.-W., Sayers, J., et al. 2012, ApJ, 756, 96, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/756/1/96

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/756/1/96 2012

  64. [64]

    G., Adelman, J., Anderson, Jr., J

    York, D. G., Adelman, J., Anderson, Jr., J. E., et al. 2000, AJ, 120, 1579, doi: 10.1086/301513

    work page doi:10.1086/301513 2000

  65. [65]

    2025, ApJ, 987, 141, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/add930

    Yoshida, T., Nagao, T., Toba, Y., et al. 2025, ApJ, 987, 141, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/add930

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/add930 2025

  66. [66]

    N., Zou, F., et al

    Yu, Z., Brandt, W. N., Zou, F., et al. 2024, ApJ, 977, 210, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad8bc0

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad8bc0 2024

  67. [67]

    2022, ApJ, 936, 118, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac87a2

    Yutani, N., Toba, Y., Baba, S., & Wada, K. 2022, ApJ, 936, 118, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac87a2

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac87a2 2022

  68. [68]

    2024, ApJ, 961, 68, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad0dfc

    Yutani, N., Toba, Y., & Wada, K. 2024, ApJ, 961, 68, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad0dfc

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad0dfc 2024

  69. [69]

    , keywords =

    Zakamska, N. L., Hamann, F., Pâris, I., et al. 2016, MNRAS, 459, 3144, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw718

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stw718 2016

  70. [70]

    N., Vito, F., et al

    Zou, F., Brandt, W. N., Vito, F., et al. 2020, MNRAS, 499, 1823, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staa2930

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2930 2020