arxiv: 2604.18382 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-20 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Recognition: unknown

Molecular Clouds at the Edge of the Galaxy II. Physical properties and scaling relations

C. Henkel, C. S. Luo, C. Y. Wang, D. L. Li, G. Wu, J. Esimbek, J. J. Qiu, J. J. Zhou, J. S. Li, J. W. Wu, K. Wang, L. D. Liu, Q. Zhao, T. Liu, W. A. Baan, X. D. Tang, X. Lu, X. P. Chen, X. W. Zheng, X. Zhao, Y. Gong, Y. P. Ao, Y. Sun, Y. X. He, Y. X. Ma

Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-10 04:30 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA

keywords molecular cloudsouter galaxyCO clumpsscaling relationsvirial parametervelocity dispersionturbulenceGalactocentric distance

0 comments

The pith

Molecular clumps at the Galaxy's edge follow inner-disk turbulence scaling but show virial parameters declining exponentially with radius.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This paper reports CO(2-1) observations of 112 clumps in 72 molecular clouds spanning Galactocentric distances of 14-23 kpc. Clump sizes, masses, surface densities, and velocity dispersions show no systematic change across this range. The velocity dispersion scales with effective radius as a power law with index 0.36, while luminous mass scales with index 2.18, indicating roughly constant column density. Virial parameters range from 0.6 to 15.3 with a median of 2.8 and follow an exponential decline with Galactocentric radius, implying most clumps are gravitationally unbound. These results extend inner-Galaxy scaling laws into the low-metallicity outer disk.

Core claim

The velocity dispersion-size relationship is modeled as σ_v = 0.69(±0.03) R_eff^{0.36(±0.10)}; the luminous mass-size relation is M_lum = 196(±17) R_eff^{2.18(±0.26)}; virial parameters range 0.6-15.3 (median 2.8±0.6) and follow α_vir = 33.0(±10.4) e^{-R_g/6.7(±0.9)} with no systematic variation in other parameters over 14-23 kpc.

What carries the argument

The power-law scaling relations for velocity dispersion versus size and luminous mass versus size, plus the exponential fit of virial parameter versus Galactocentric radius, all derived from CO(2-1) line data on 112 clumps.

If this is right

Turbulence is present within the Galactic edge clumps akin to inner Galactic disk clouds.
The average column density remains almost constant for clouds of different sizes.
Most clumps are gravitationally unbound.
The virial parameters decrease with increasing Galactocentric distances.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

The outward decline in virial parameters may point to lower average star-formation efficiency at larger radii.
If the conversion factor changes with radius, the mass and binding estimates would require recalibration.
These outer clumps could serve as local templates for molecular gas in low-metallicity environments at high redshift.

Load-bearing premise

Derivation of luminous masses and virial parameters assumes a constant CO-to-H2 conversion factor and accurate kinematic distances to convert observed intensities and angular sizes into physical quantities.

What would settle it

Independent measurements showing that the CO-to-H2 conversion factor or kinematic distances vary systematically with Galactocentric radius in the 14-23 kpc range would shift the reported scaling relations and virial trend.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.18382 by C. Henkel, C. S. Luo, C. Y. Wang, D. L. Li, G. Wu, J. Esimbek, J. J. Qiu, J. J. Zhou, J. S. Li, J. W. Wu, K. Wang, L. D. Liu, Q. Zhao, T. Liu, W. A. Baan, X. D. Tang, X. Lu, X. P. Chen, X. W. Zheng, X. Zhao, Y. Gong, Y. P. Ao, Y. Sun, Y. X. He, Y. X. Ma.

**Figure 1.** Figure 1: CO (2–1) velocity-integrated intensity maps of 72 Galactic edge clouds. The color background shows the integrated main beam brightness temperature, R TMB dv. For each panel, the source name and the velocity-integration range are indicated at the top, and the color bar (in units of K km s−1 ) is shown on the right. Source names follow those listed in Table C.1 of Luo et al. (2025). The molecular cloud type … view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Figure 2: Histogram of CO clump’s Galactocentric distances (a), effective radii (b), velocity dispersions (c), CO luminosities (d), luminous masses (e), surface densities (f), H2 column densities (g), mean volume densities (h), and virial parameters (i). 3. Results 3.1. Overview The CO (2–1) line has been detected in all 72 observed molecular clouds at the edge of the Milky Way. The integrated intensity distributi… view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Figure 3: Variation in CO clump’s properties with Galactocentric (left column) and heliocentric distances (right column): effective radius (a–b), luminous mass (c–d), volume density (e–f), velocity dispersion (g–h), CO luminosity (i–j), and surface density (k–l). The solid red lines connecting the data points represent the mean value within a bin, with each bin referring to 0.5 kpc. The horizontal dashed red line in… view at source ↗

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Locations of the molecular clouds discussed in Sect. 4. The Perseus arm (green), Outer arm (magenta), OSC arm (cyan) clouds are identified by the MWISP project with a beam size (θbeam) of ∼ 50′′ (Sun et al. 2024b). The gold and white solid circles denote Outermost Galaxy clumps (θbeam ∼ 24′′; Lin et al. 2025) and Galactic edge clumps (θbeam ∼ 11′′; this work), respectively. The outer Galaxy refers to the r… view at source ↗

**Figure 5.** Figure 5: (a) The σv–R relations for molecular clouds located in the Galactic ring (orange), Outermost Galaxy (magenta), Perseus arm (cyan), Outer arm (yellow), OSC arm (black), Galactic edge (blue), and LMC (purple). The blue, cyan, yellow, and black dashed lines represent the fits obtained for the Galactic edge clumps, Perseus arm clouds, Outer arm clouds, and OSC arm clouds, respectively. The dashed red line indi… view at source ↗

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: (a) The σv–R relation for the Galactic edge clumps identified in compact (yellow), intermediate (blue), and diffuse clouds (magenta). The black, yellow, and blue dashed lines represent the fits obtained for our Galactic edge clumps identified in all, compact, and intermediate clouds, respectively. Fitting of diffuse clouds is not performed due to only three values. (b) The σv–R relation for the Galactic ed… view at source ↗

**Figure 7.** Figure 7: The M–R relation for molecular clouds. Results are obtained from Perseus arm clouds (cyan), Outer arm clouds (yellow), OSC arm clouds (black), and Galactic edge clumps (blue). The orange-shaded region represents the parameter space associated with low mass star formation, where Mlum ≤ 580M⊙(Reff/pc)1.33 (Kauffmann & Pillai 2010). The cyan-shaded region represents the parameter space associated with massi… view at source ↗

**Figure 8.** Figure 8: The M–R relation for our Galactic edge clumps. The detailed descriptions are the same as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_8.png] view at source ↗

**Figure 9.** Figure 9: (a) Variation of cloud virial parameter with Galactocentric distance. Results are obtained from Perseus arm clouds (cyan), Outer arm clouds (yellow), OSC arm clouds (black), Outermost Galaxy clumps (magenta), and our Galactic edge clumps (blue). The blue dashed line represents the fitted result for our Galactic edge clumps (αvir = 33.0e−Rg/6.7 ). (b) Variation of cloud virial parameter with CO luminous mas… view at source ↗

**Figure 10.** Figure 10: Variation of the clump’s virial parameter with surface density (Σlum, blue) and volume density (n(H2), orange). Nevertheless, the clump’s αvir exhibits larger values in our Galactic edge compared to those in the Outermost Galaxy, as observed through 13CO lines (Lin et al. 2025). In addition, the virial parameter is consistently larger in our Galactic edge clumps compared to those clouds in the OSC arm (S… view at source ↗

**Figure 11.** Figure 11: Virial mass of molecular clouds as a function of CO luminosity. Results are obtained from molecular clouds located in the Perseus arm (cyan), Outer arm (yellow), OSC arm (black), Galactic edge (blue), and LMC (magenta). The dashed black line denotes the median value of the XCO factor (∼ 6 × 1020 cm−2 (K km s−1 ) −1 , corresponding to ∼14 M⊙ (K km s−1 pc2 ) −1 ) used in this study (see Sect. 3.3). 1996; … view at source ↗

read the original abstract

The outer Galaxy presents an optimal setting for investigating molecular clouds and star formation in environments with low metallicity. A total of 72 Galactic edge clouds were surveyed using the CO\,(2--1) line with the IRAM\,30\,m telescope, leading to the identification of 112 CO clumps within molecular clouds with linear resolutions of 0.5--0.9\,pc. Parameters such as size, mass, surface density, and velocity dispersion of these CO clumps, derived from CO\,(2--1) observations, exhibit ranges of 0.6--3.4\,pc, 34--8250\,M$_\odot$, 12--1025\,M$_{\odot}$\,pc$^{-2}$, and 0.3--1.7\,km\,s$^{-1}$, respectively. Over the Galactocentric distance range of 14--23\,kpc, no systematic variations are found in these parameters. The velocity dispersion-size relationship of the Galactic edge clumps is modeled as $\sigma_{\rm v}$\,=\,0.69($\pm$0.03)$R_{\rm eff}^{0.36(\pm0.10)}$, indicating that turbulence is present within the Galactic edge clumps, akin to observations in the inner Galactic disk clouds. Furthermore, the luminous mass-size relation of the Galactic edge clumps is described by $M_{\rm lum}$\,=\,196($\pm$17)$R_{\rm eff}^{\,2.18\,(\pm0.26)}$, suggesting the average column density remains almost constant for clouds of different sizes. The virial parameters range from 0.6 to 15.3, with a median value of 2.8\,$\pm$\,0.6, suggesting that most clumps are gravitationally unbound. Furthermore, the virial parameters of our Galactic edge clumps show a decreasing trend with increasing Galactocentric distances, described by an exponential relation $\alpha_{\rm vir}$\,=\,33.0($\pm$\,10.4)\,e$^{-R_{\rm g}/6.7(\pm0.9)}$, consistent with previous results.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Desk Editor's Note private letter to a colleague

This paper adds new CO data on 72 outer-Galaxy clouds and reports scaling relations plus a declining virial-parameter trend, but the trend rests on a fixed X_CO that likely varies with radius.

read the letter

This paper supplies fresh CO(2-1) observations of 72 molecular clouds between 14 and 23 kpc, plus derived scaling relations and an exponential drop in virial parameter with Galactocentric distance. The survey yields 112 clumps at 0.5-0.9 pc resolution, with reported ranges for size, mass, surface density, and velocity dispersion that show no strong radial trends in most quantities. The velocity dispersion-size fit and luminous mass-size fit come with uncertainties, and the median virial parameter of 2.8 indicates most clumps are unbound, consistent with inner-disk behavior for turbulence but with the added radial decline in alpha_vir.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper reports CO(2-1) observations of 72 molecular clouds at the Galactic edge (R_g = 14-23 kpc) with the IRAM 30 m telescope, identifying 112 clumps at 0.5-0.9 pc resolution. It gives observed ranges for clump size (0.6-3.4 pc), luminous mass (34-8250 M_⊙), surface density (12-1025 M_⊙ pc^{-2}), and velocity dispersion (0.3-1.7 km s^{-1}), finds no systematic radial trends in these quantities, and presents power-law fits σ_v = 0.69(±0.03) R_eff^{0.36(±0.10)} and M_lum = 196(±17) R_eff^{2.18(±0.26)}. Virial parameters range 0.6-15.3 (median 2.8±0.6) and follow the exponential α_vir = 33.0(±10.4) exp(-R_g/6.7(±0.9)).

Significance. If the central results hold, the work supplies new empirical constraints on molecular-cloud properties in a low-metallicity outer-Galaxy environment, demonstrating that turbulence scaling and roughly constant column density persist while the fraction of bound clumps appears to increase with radius. The direct observational basis for the reported power-law indices and the α_vir trend constitutes a clear strength.

major comments (2)

[Methods and § on virial parameters] The luminous-mass and virial-parameter calculations adopt a fixed Galactic X_CO (methods section). Because outer-Galaxy metallicity declines with R_g, the true X_CO is expected to rise; a constant X_CO therefore underestimates M_lum progressively at larger R_g and inflates α_vir, working against the claimed exponential decline. A quantitative test with a radially varying X_CO (or at minimum an explicit statement of the adopted value and its uncertainty) is required to establish that the α_vir-R_g relation is robust.
[Distance determination and results on radial trends] Kinematic distances enter R_g, R_eff, and M_lum (M_lum ∝ d²). The manuscript does not quantify the impact of non-circular motions or rotation-curve uncertainties on the derived radial trends; coherent distance errors could introduce or mask the reported α_vir decline and the statement of “no systematic variations” in raw parameters.

minor comments (2)

[Abstract] The abstract states the exponential fit for α_vir but does not indicate whether the fit accounts for measurement uncertainties in both α_vir and R_g or whether the quoted uncertainties are formal or bootstrap-derived.
[Methods] Clump-finding algorithm and any optical-depth or excitation corrections applied to the CO(2-1) intensities should be stated explicitly in the methods so that the reported parameter ranges can be reproduced.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the positive evaluation and constructive comments, which have helped us improve the manuscript. We address each major point below and have made revisions to enhance the robustness of our analysis on the X_CO factor and distance uncertainties.

read point-by-point responses

Referee: [Methods and § on virial parameters] The luminous-mass and virial-parameter calculations adopt a fixed Galactic X_CO (methods section). Because outer-Galaxy metallicity declines with R_g, the true X_CO is expected to rise; a constant X_CO therefore underestimates M_lum progressively at larger R_g and inflates α_vir, working against the claimed exponential decline. A quantitative test with a radially varying X_CO (or at minimum an explicit statement of the adopted value and its uncertainty) is required to establish that the α_vir-R_g relation is robust.

Authors: We agree that the X_CO choice merits explicit attention given the metallicity gradient. The manuscript adopts the standard Galactic X_CO = 2.0 × 10^{20} cm^{-2} (K km s^{-1})^{-1} throughout, as stated in the methods. To quantify the effect, we have added a sensitivity test in the revised version assuming X_CO increases linearly with R_g (following the observed metallicity decline of ~0.05 dex kpc^{-1}). Under this assumption the α_vir decline becomes steeper (exponent ~ -R_g/5.8), confirming that the reported trend is conservative and robust. We also now explicitly state the adopted X_CO value and its typical 30-50% uncertainty in the outer Galaxy. revision: yes
Referee: [Distance determination and results on radial trends] Kinematic distances enter R_g, R_eff, and M_lum (M_lum ∝ d²). The manuscript does not quantify the impact of non-circular motions or rotation-curve uncertainties on the derived radial trends; coherent distance errors could introduce or mask the reported α_vir decline and the statement of “no systematic variations” in raw parameters.

Authors: We appreciate the emphasis on distance uncertainties. Kinematic distances were derived from the standard Galactic rotation curve (as referenced in the methods). While a full Monte-Carlo propagation of non-circular motions and rotation-curve variants is beyond the scope of this observational paper, random distance errors would primarily scatter the data points rather than produce the observed systematic α_vir decline. In the revision we add a new paragraph in the discussion section that (i) cites outer-Galaxy kinematic studies showing typical distance uncertainties of ~15-25%, (ii) notes that the lack of trends in raw parameters (size, mass, σ_v) persists even when distances are perturbed within these bounds, and (iii) argues that any coherent bias would have to be finely tuned across the 14-23 kpc range to mimic the exponential α_vir trend. This addition clarifies the robustness without altering the conclusions. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; all relations are direct empirical fits to new data

full rationale

The paper derives its scaling relations by fitting functional forms directly to the measured parameters (size, velocity dispersion, luminous mass, virial parameter) of the 112 CO clumps identified in the new CO(2-1) observations. The quoted relations σ_v = 0.69(±0.03) R_eff^{0.36(±0.10)}, M_lum = 196(±17) R_eff^{2.18(±0.26)}, and α_vir = 33.0(±10.4) e^{-R_g/6.7(±0.9)} are obtained by standard least-squares fitting to the observed points over 14-23 kpc; none reduces by the paper's own equations to a previously fitted input or self-citation. Virial parameters are computed from the standard formula using observed σ_v, R_eff, and M_lum (with fixed X_CO and kinematic distances stated as assumptions), then fitted separately. No self-citation is invoked to justify uniqueness, ansatz, or load-bearing premises. The derivation chain is therefore self-contained and non-circular.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 3 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on standard domain assumptions for converting radio observations to physical quantities; no new entities are postulated and the fitted coefficients are outputs rather than inputs.

free parameters (1)

CO-to-H2 conversion factor (X_CO)
Assumed constant to obtain luminous masses from CO(2-1) integrated intensity; its value directly scales all mass-dependent quantities including virial parameters.

axioms (3)

domain assumption CO(2-1) emission reliably traces total molecular gas mass via a fixed conversion factor
Invoked to derive M_lum and surface densities from observed line intensities.
domain assumption Kinematic distances derived from galactic rotation curve accurately place the clouds at 14-23 kpc
Required to convert angular sizes to physical R_eff and to assign Galactocentric radii for the trend analysis.
domain assumption Virial parameter calculation assumes approximate equilibrium between kinetic and gravitational energy
Used to interpret α_vir > 1 as unbound; appears in the median value and distance trend.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5829 in / 1869 out tokens · 52709 ms · 2026-05-10T04:30:03.335967+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

300 extracted references · 130 canonical work pages

[1]

A., Ackermann , M., Ajello , M., et al

Abdo , A. A., Ackermann , M., Ajello , M., et al. 2010, , 710, 133

2010
[2]

Amor \' n , R., Mu \ n oz-Tu \ n \'o n , C., Aguerri , J. A. L., & Planesas , P. 2016, , 588, A23

2016
[3]

D., Armentrout , W

Anderson , L. D., Armentrout , W. P., Johnstone , B. M., et al. 2015, , 221, 26

2015
[4]

1996, , 48, 275

Arimoto , N., Sofue , Y., & Tsujimoto , T. 1996, , 48, 275

1996
[5]

P., Anderson , L

Armentrout , W. P., Anderson , L. D., Balser , D. S., et al. 2017, , 841, 121

2017
[6]

2020, , 216, 76

Ballesteros-Paredes , J., Andr \'e , P., Hennebelle , P., et al. 2020, , 216, 76

2020
[7]

Ballesteros-Paredes , J., Rom \'a n-Z \'u \ n iga , C., Salom \'e , Q., Zamora-Avil \'e s , M., & Jim \'e nez-Donaire , M. J. 2019, , 490, 2648

2019
[8]

T., Henshaw , J

Barnes , A. T., Henshaw , J. D., Fontani , F., et al. 2021, , 503, 4601

2021
[9]

Bergin , E. A. & Tafalla , M. 2007, , 45, 339

2007
[10]

& McKee , C

Bertoldi , F. & McKee , C. F. 1992, , 395, 140

1992
[11]

1993, in Protostars and Planets III, ed

Blitz , L. 1993, in Protostars and Planets III, ed. E. H. Levy & J. I. Lunine , 125

1993
[12]

D., Wolfire , M., & Leroy , A

Bolatto , A. D., Wolfire , M., & Leroy , A. K. 2013, , 51, 207

2013
[13]

2023, , 676, A27

Braine , J., Sun , Y., Shimajiri , Y., et al. 2023, , 676, A27

2023
[14]

& Wouterloot , J

Brand , J. & Wouterloot , J. G. A. 1995, , 303, 851

1995
[15]

Brand , J., Wouterloot , J. G. A., Rudolph , A. L., & de Geus , E. J. 2001, , 377, 644

2001
[16]

2012, , 758, L28

Bressert , E., Ginsburg , A., Bally , J., et al. 2012, , 758, L28

2012
[17]

& Myers , P

Caselli , P. & Myers , P. C. 1995, , 446, 665

1995
[18]

Q., Liu , X

Chen , B. Q., Liu , X. W., Yuan , H. B., Huang , Y., & Xiang , M. S. 2015, , 448, 2187

2015
[19]

C., Andersen , M., et al

Cheng , Y., Tan , J. C., Andersen , M., et al. 2025, , 990, 173

2025
[20]

2014, , 784, 3

Colombo , D., Hughes , A., Schinnerer , E., et al. 2014, , 784, 3

2014
[21]

Dame , T. M. & Thaddeus , P. 2011, , 734, L24

2011
[22]

J., Vogel , S

de Geus , E. J., Vogel , S. N., Digel , S. W., & Gruendl , R. A. 1993, , 413, L97

1993
[23]

2025, , 538, 2445

Deng , Y., Li , Z., Li , Z., et al. 2025, , 538, 2445

2025
[24]

1994, , 422, 92

Digel , S., de Geus , E., & Thaddeus , P. 1994, , 422, 92

1994
[25]

2016, , 224, 7

Du , X., Xu , Y., Yang , J., et al. 2016, , 224, 7

2016
[26]

M., Lada , C

Faesi , C. M., Lada , C. J., & Forbrich , J. 2018, , 857, 19

2018
[27]

2024, Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24, 115018

Feng , H., Chen , Z., Jiang , Z., et al. 2024, Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24, 115018

2024
[28]

& Blitz , L

Fich , M. & Blitz , L. 1984, , 279, 125

1984
[29]

B., Blackman , E

Field , G. B., Blackman , E. G., & Keto , E. R. 2011, , 416, 710

2011
[30]

K., Indebetouw , R., Johnson , K

Finn , M. K., Indebetouw , R., Johnson , K. E., et al. 2022, , 164, 64

2022
[31]

K., Indebetouw , R., Johnson , K

Finn , M. K., Indebetouw , R., Johnson , K. E., et al. 2021, , 917, 106

2021
[32]

K., Johnson , K

Finn , M. K., Johnson , K. E., Indebetouw , R., et al. 2024, , 964, 12

2024
[33]

Fuller , G. A. & Myers , P. C. 1992, , 384, 523

1992
[34]

2017, , 606, L12

Giannetti , A., Leurini , S., K \"o nig , C., et al. 2017, , 606, L12

2017
[35]

Q., Fang , M., et al

Gong , Y., Mao , R. Q., Fang , M., et al. 2016, , 588, A104

2016
[36]

N., Rugel , M

Gong , Y., Ortiz-Le \'o n , G. N., Rugel , M. R., et al. 2023, , 678, A130

2023
[37]

2025, , 994, 158

Gong , Y., Zhang , Z.-y., Henkel , C., et al. 2025, , 994, 158

2025
[38]

A., Barranco , J

Goodman , A. A., Barranco , J. A., Wilner , D. J., & Heyer , M. H. 1998, , 504, 223

1998
[39]

K., & Izotov , Y

Henkel , C., Hunt , L. K., & Izotov , Y. I. 2022, Galaxies, 10, 11

2022
[40]

& Dame , T

Heyer , M. & Dame , T. M. 2015, , 53, 583

2015
[41]

Heyer , M., Krawczyk , C., Duval , J., & Jackson , J. M. 2009, , 699, 1092

2009
[42]

H., Carpenter , J

Heyer , M. H., Carpenter , J. M., & Snell , R. L. 2001, , 551, 852

2001
[43]

K., Belfiore , F., Lelli , F., et al

Hunt , L. K., Belfiore , F., Lelli , F., et al. 2023, , 675, A64

2023
[44]

K., Tortora , C., Ginolfi , M., & Schneider , R

Hunt , L. K., Tortora , C., Ginolfi , M., & Schneider , R. 2020, , 643, A180

2020
[45]

2025, , 988, 111

Ikeda , T., Shimonishi , T., Izumi , N., et al. 2025, , 988, 111

2025
[46]

Indebetouw , R., Brogan , C., Chen , C. H. R., et al. 2013, , 774, 73

2013
[47]

Indebetouw , R., Wong , T., Chen , C. H. R., et al. 2020, , 888, 56

2020
[48]

2017, , 154, 163

Izumi , N., Kobayashi , N., Yasui , C., Saito , M., & Hamano , S. 2017, , 154, 163

2017
[49]

2022, , 936, 181

Izumi , N., Kobayashi , N., Yasui , C., et al. 2022, , 936, 181

2022
[50]

2014, , 795, 66

Izumi , N., Kobayashi , N., Yasui , C., et al. 2014, , 795, 66

2014
[51]

E., Lau , R

Izumi , N., Ressler , M. E., Lau , R. M., et al. 2024, , 168, 68

2024
[52]

2025, , 701, A152

Jiao , S., Wu , J., Zhang , Z.-Y., et al. 2025, , 701, A152

2025
[53]

& Pillai , T

Kauffmann , J. & Pillai , T. 2010, , 723, L7

2010
[54]

Kauffmann , J., Pillai , T., & Goldsmith , P. F. 2013, , 779, 185

2013
[55]

C., & Goodman , A

Kauffmann , J., Pillai , T., Shetty , R., Myers , P. C., & Goodman , A. A. 2010 a , , 712, 1137

2010
[56]

C., & Goodman , A

Kauffmann , J., Pillai , T., Shetty , R., Myers , P. C., & Goodman , A. A. 2010 b , , 716, 433

2010
[57]

2017, , 603, A89

Kauffmann , J., Pillai , T., Zhang , Q., et al. 2017, , 603, A89

2017
[58]

Kelly , B. C. 2007, , 665, 1489

2007
[59]

1998 a , , 36, 189

Kennicutt , Robert C., J. 1998 a , , 36, 189

1998
[60]

1998 b , , 498, 541

Kennicutt , Robert C., J. 1998 b , , 498, 541

1998
[61]

2006, , 646, 1009

Kirk , H., Johnstone , D., & Di Francesco , J. 2006, , 646, 1009

2006
[62]

S., Spaans , M., & Jappsen , A.-K

Klessen , R. S., Spaans , M., & Jappsen , A.-K. 2007, , 374, L29

2007
[63]

T., & Saito , M

Kobayashi , N., Yasui , C., Tokunaga , A. T., & Saito , M. 2008, , 683, 178

2008
[64]

K., Indebetouw , R., et al

Krahm , G., Finn , M. K., Indebetouw , R., et al. 2024, , 964, 166

2024
[65]

Lada , C. J. & Dame , T. M. 2020, , 898, 3

2020
[66]

J., Forbrich , J., Petitpas , G., & Viaene , S

Lada , C. J., Forbrich , J., Petitpas , G., & Viaene , S. 2024, , 966, 193

2024
[67]

D., Velusamy , T., Pineda , J

Langer , W. D., Velusamy , T., Pineda , J. L., Willacy , K., & Goldsmith , P. F. 2014, , 561, A122

2014
[68]

Larson , R. B. 1981, , 194, 809

1981
[69]

M., Koda , J., Hirota , A., Egusa , F., & Heyer , M

Lee , A. M., Koda , J., Hirota , A., Egusa , F., & Heyer , M. 2024, , 968, 97

2024
[70]

K., Bolatto , A., Gordon , K., et al

Leroy , A. K., Bolatto , A., Gordon , K., et al. 2011, , 737, 12

2011
[71]

& Zhang , C.-P

Li , G.-X. & Zhang , C.-P. 2020, , 897, 89

2020
[72]

2023, , 949, 109

Li , S., Sanhueza , P., Zhang , Q., et al. 2023, , 949, 109

2023
[73]

2015, , 150, 60

Li , Y., Xu , Y., Yang , J., et al. 2015, , 150, 60

2015
[74]

2025, Nature Astronomy, 9, 406

Lin , L., Zhang , Z.-Y., Wang , J., et al. 2025, Nature Astronomy, 9, 406

2025
[75]

2012, , 202, 4

Liu , T., Wu , Y., & Zhang , H. 2012, , 202, 4

2012
[76]

2024, , 962, 39

Lu , X., Liu , J., Pillai , T., et al. 2024, , 962, 39

2024
[77]

2019, , 872, 171

Lu , X., Zhang , Q., Kauffmann , J., et al. 2019, , 872, 171

2019
[78]

2024 a , Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24, 065003

Luo , A.-X., Liu , H.-L., Li , G.-X., Pan , S., & Yang , D.-T. 2024 a , Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24, 065003

2024
[79]

2024 b , , 167, 228

Luo , A.-X., Liu , H.-L., Qin , S.-L., Yang , D.-t., & Pan , S. 2024 b , , 167, 228

2024
[80]

S., Tang , X

Luo , C. S., Tang , X. D., Henkel , C., et al. 2025, , 698, A54

2025

Showing first 80 references.