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arxiv: 2605.00163 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-30 · ⚛️ physics.space-ph · astro-ph.SR

Recognition: unknown

Radial Dependency of ICME-associated Particle Acceleration Processes: Statistical Multipoint Observations from 2016-2023

Malik H. Walker , Robert C. Allen , George C. Ho , Glenn M. Mason , Christina M. S. Cohen , Christina Lee , Christian M\"ostl , Emma E. Davies
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Eva Weiler
Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-09 19:49 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.space-ph astro-ph.SR
keywords ICMEshock accelerationsolar energetic particlesradial dependencyenergetic storm particlesmultipoint observationsheliocentric distanceparticle spectra
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The pith

Multipoint observations show ICME-driven shocks accelerate particles more efficiently up to 0.7 au before efficiency declines at larger distances.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper examines how particle acceleration at shocks driven by interplanetary coronal mass ejections changes as these structures move away from the Sun. By analyzing data from multiple spacecraft at different distances, the authors track changes in the energy spectra of energetic particles associated with these shocks. They find that the efficiency of shock acceleration tends to grow as the ICME travels outward within about 0.7 astronomical units but then declines at larger distances. This pattern suggests that the evolving conditions of the shock, such as its strength and interaction with the surrounding solar wind, play a key role in how effectively it energizes particles. Understanding this radial dependence helps explain variations in solar energetic particle events observed at Earth and other locations.

Core claim

Using a database of 39 multipoint ICME events observed by spacecraft including Parker Solar Probe, Solar Orbiter, ACE, Wind, and STEREO-A from 2016 to 2023, the study derives local shock and energetic storm particle spectral shape parameters. Comparison across different heliocentric distances shows evidence for a consistent increase in shock acceleration efficiency with distance while the ICME is within 0.7 au, followed by a reduction in efficiency at greater distances. This connects the evolution of local shock conditions to the observed spectral shapes of accelerated particles.

What carries the argument

Statistical comparison of shock parameters and ESP spectral indices from in-situ measurements at multiple spacecraft positions along the radial propagation path of the same ICME.

If this is right

  • Models of solar energetic particle production must incorporate radial variations in shock efficiency.
  • Predictions of particle intensities at different distances from the Sun can be refined based on this distance-dependent behavior.
  • The peak efficiency around 0.7 au may influence the overall SEP event characteristics observed at 1 au.
  • Interactions with other solar wind structures at larger distances may reduce acceleration efficiency.
  • Composition and intensity of particles can be better linked to specific stages of ICME propagation.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • This radial pattern could imply that shocks strengthen initially due to expansion or merging before weakening at large distances.
  • Future missions with more inner heliosphere coverage could test if the transition at 0.7 au is sharp or gradual.
  • The findings might help in forecasting space weather impacts by accounting for where the ICME is when it accelerates particles.
  • Similar analyses could be extended to other types of solar wind structures beyond ICMEs.

Load-bearing premise

The 39 selected events are assumed to represent typical ICME behavior without significant biases from how the events were chosen or how measurements from separate spacecraft represent the same shock's changes.

What would settle it

Observing a sample of multipoint ICMEs where the spectral parameters show no increase in efficiency up to 0.7 au or no subsequent decrease would contradict the suggested pattern.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.00163 by Christian M\"ostl, Christina Lee, Christina M. S. Cohen, Emma E. Davies, Eva Weiler, George C. Ho, Glenn M. Mason, Malik H. Walker, Robert C. Allen.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Overview of the multipoint event catalog. Panel a): Spacecraft locations in the Heliocentric Earth Equatorial (HEEQ) system for each event. Panel b): Radial and longitudinal separation between observing spacecraft for each event. ated acceleration, we only use events where the maximum sep￾aration spanned by all spacecraft observing a particular ICME was ∆r > 0.2 and ∆Long < 45◦ . We also note that while th… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Particle spectra for the passage of ESPs associated with the 2023 November 9 CME. This event was seen Solar Orbiter at 0.69 au, STEREO-A at 0.97 au, and Wind/ACE at 0.98 au. There was a total longitudinal separation of 18.36◦ between the spacecraft. Panels a) through c) show the spectra observed by Solar Orbiter, Wind/ACE, and STEREO-A respectively. The solid lines denote the observed spectra, while the do… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Summary of the total single point and two-point observa￾tions of break energy in fitted particle spectra per ion species. (equating to 52 individual sightings). A selection of shape and shock parameters for these events are shown in Table B.1. Across all single point observations of these events, 17 4He spectra were best fit by the Pan-Spectrum fitting formula, 9 by the CDPL, 13 by a single power law, and … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Scatter plots showing the relationship between break energy, E0, and various parameters for individual ICME observations of the 23 multipoint events used for this study. (a) Shock normal angle (θbn), (b) Upstream magnetic turbulence (δB/B0), (c) Density compression (ncomp), (d) heliocentric distance (r). For each data point, observing spacecraft is designated by shape, and particle species is designated by… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Scatter plots showing the correlation between changes in heliocentric distance (r), various shock parameters, and spectral break energy (E0) for two-point 4He observations of upstream ESPs associated with ICME events. (a) Shock normal angle, (b) magnetic compression (Bcomp), (c) upstream plasma beta (βup), (d) density compression, (e) upstream magnetic turbulence, (f) shock speed (Vsh). The change in spect… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Plots showing the correlation between heliocentric distance (r), shock parameters, and break energy (E0) for individual 4He measurements of upstream ESPs associated with multipoint ICME events. (a) Shock normal angle (θbn), (b) upstream magnetic turbulence (δB/B0) , and (c) magnetic compression (Bcomp). For each point, the observing spacecraft are designated via shape. The colored lines connect observation… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Evolution of spectral shape parameters (namely the break energy, and slopes both before and after the break) calculated for upstream ESP, 4He measurements and averaged over equally spaced distance bins. (a) Changes in average double power law spectra with distance, (b) - (d) box plots showing the change in break energy, β1, and β2, respectively, with distance. The counts in each bin, in order, are 1, 1, 5,… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

During the propagation of interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs), evolution of the ICME-driven shock along with interactions with other solar wind structures, planetary bodies, and general changes to their morphology can alter particle acceleration efficiency and transport effects at their associated shocks. While the underlying mechanisms for these processes have been studied, the connection between the radial evolution of the ICME-driven shock during propagation and resulting gradual Solar Energetic Particle (SEP)and Energetic Storm Particle (ESP) intensities, composition, and acceleration has yet to be fully understood. The current distributed array of spacecraft at varying heliocentric distances provides a welcome opportunity to statistically analyze the radial dependency of particle populations and acceleration mechanisms present at ICME-driven shocks. We compile a database of 39 multipoint ICME events from 2016-2023, which are observed in situ by at least two of the following spacecraft: Parker Solar Probe (PSP), Solar Orbiter, ACE, Wind, and STEREO-A. Using the magnetic field, plasma, and ion compositional data provided by these spacecraft, we derive both local shock and ESP spectral shape parameters. By comparing the changes in these parameters at different stages of ICME propagation, we analyze the connection between the evolution of the local shock conditions and the spectral shape. We find evidence to suggest a consistent increase in shock acceleration efficiency with heliocentric distance while the parent ICME is within 0.7 au, followed by a reduction in shock efficiency at further distances.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 3 minor

Summary. The manuscript describes the compilation of 39 multipoint ICME events observed between 2016 and 2023 by spacecraft such as Parker Solar Probe, Solar Orbiter, ACE, Wind, and STEREO-A. The authors use in-situ measurements of magnetic field, plasma, and ion composition to derive parameters characterizing the local shock and associated Energetic Storm Particles (ESP). Through comparison of these parameters at varying heliocentric distances, they investigate the radial evolution of shock acceleration efficiency, reporting evidence for an increase within 0.7 au and a subsequent decrease at larger distances.

Significance. Should the central findings prove robust upon detailed scrutiny, this study would contribute significantly to the understanding of how ICME-driven shocks evolve radially and influence particle acceleration and transport in the heliosphere. The multipoint observational approach is particularly valuable for distinguishing propagation effects from local variations. It has potential implications for modeling gradual SEP events and improving predictions of space radiation hazards.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The claim of 'evidence to suggest a consistent increase in shock acceleration efficiency with heliocentric distance while the parent ICME is within 0.7 au, followed by a reduction' is presented without any reported quantitative metrics (e.g., mean changes in spectral indices, intensity ratios, or fitted slopes), statistical significance tests, or uncertainty estimates. This is load-bearing for the central claim because the trend cannot be evaluated for robustness against the small sample or event-to-event variability.
  2. [Methods] Methods (event database compilation): No quantitative selection criteria, matching procedure across spacecraft, or handling of longitudinal separations and local plasma variations are described for the 39 events. This directly undermines the assumption that in-situ measurements track the radial evolution of the identical shock, as selection biases could artifactually produce the reported increase-then-decrease pattern.
minor comments (3)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: Include at least one sentence summarizing the typical spacecraft separations and radial coverage to contextualize the 0.7 au transition.
  2. Throughout: Define 'shock acceleration efficiency' explicitly in terms of the derived spectral shape parameters (e.g., power-law index or rollover energy) upon first use.
  3. [Results] Results: If trend plots exist, add error bars and indicate the number of events per radial bin to allow assessment of statistical weight.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive comments on our manuscript. These have highlighted opportunities to strengthen the presentation of our central findings and the transparency of our methods. We address each major comment below and outline the revisions we will implement.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The claim of 'evidence to suggest a consistent increase in shock acceleration efficiency with heliocentric distance while the parent ICME is within 0.7 au, followed by a reduction' is presented without any reported quantitative metrics (e.g., mean changes in spectral indices, intensity ratios, or fitted slopes), statistical significance tests, or uncertainty estimates. This is load-bearing for the central claim because the trend cannot be evaluated for robustness against the small sample or event-to-event variability.

    Authors: We agree that the abstract would be improved by incorporating quantitative support for the reported trend. The manuscript body includes detailed multipoint comparisons of ESP spectral indices, intensity ratios, and shock parameters across the 39 events, with binned averages and scatter plots demonstrating the increase up to 0.7 AU followed by a decrease. To make this evidence explicit in the abstract and address concerns about robustness and variability, we will revise the abstract to include specific metrics such as mean changes in spectral indices between distance bins, associated standard deviations, and reference to the statistical tests applied to assess the trend significance. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Methods] Methods (event database compilation): No quantitative selection criteria, matching procedure across spacecraft, or handling of longitudinal separations and local plasma variations are described for the 39 events. This directly undermines the assumption that in-situ measurements track the radial evolution of the identical shock, as selection biases could artifactually produce the reported increase-then-decrease pattern.

    Authors: We acknowledge that the methods section would benefit from greater explicit detail on event selection to allow readers to evaluate potential biases. The 39 multipoint events were compiled using standard in-situ criteria for ICME and shock identification (magnetic field enhancements, plasma speed jumps, and composition signatures) from the listed spacecraft, with temporal matching based on expected propagation times and longitudinal separations generally constrained to minimize non-radial effects. To directly resolve the referee's concern, we will add a dedicated subsection in the methods that specifies the quantitative thresholds for event inclusion, the precise matching procedure across spacecraft (including time windows and parameter tolerances), and the approach taken to account for longitudinal separations and local plasma variations when confirming that observations track the same ICME-driven shock. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: purely observational statistical comparison

full rationale

The paper compiles a database of 39 multipoint ICME events and performs direct comparisons of in-situ measured shock and ESP spectral parameters across heliocentric distances. No equations, derivations, parameter fittings, or predictions are described that reduce to the inputs by construction. The central claim rests on empirical trends in observed data rather than any self-referential logic, self-citation chains, or ansatz smuggling. This is a standard honest non-finding for an observational study.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim depends on standard domain assumptions about shock identification, spectral parameter derivation, and event representativeness in heliospheric in-situ data.

axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Local in-situ measurements at spacecraft locations are representative of the global radial evolution of the ICME-driven shock.
    Invoked implicitly when comparing parameters across different heliocentric distances.
  • domain assumption Spectral shape parameters reliably indicate shock acceleration efficiency.
    Standard assumption in SEP/ESP analysis but not justified in the abstract.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5610 in / 1294 out tokens · 47921 ms · 2026-05-09T19:49:15.179267+00:00 · methodology

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