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arxiv: 2605.05377 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-06 · 🌌 astro-ph.SR

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The Impact of Radiation Environment on the Evolution and Fragmentation of Protostellar Discs

Ana Duarte-Cabral, Anthony P. Whitworth, Felix D. Priestley, Ken Rice, Matt T. Cusack, Paul C. Clark, Ralf S. Klessen, Simon C. O. Glover

Pith reviewed 2026-05-08 16:01 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.SR
keywords protostellar discsdisc fragmentationradiation environmentmolecular cloud simulationsstar formationToomre parameteraccretion discs
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The pith

Stronger radiation fields produce more massive, hotter protostellar discs that fragment into larger bodies capable of disrupting their parent disc.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

High-resolution simulations track the first accretion discs forming inside molecular clouds bathed in radiation fields up to a thousand times stronger than the solar neighbourhood. Discs in the intense-radiation runs grow more massive, reach higher temperatures and densities, and feed their central stars more rapidly than discs in weaker fields. All discs become unstable at times, yet standard stability metrics such as the Toomre Q parameter fail to flag which ones will actually break apart. Fragments born in strong radiation are themselves stellar-mass objects that can consume the remaining disc, while fragments in solar-like conditions are planetary-mass and often spiral inward. The work therefore shows that both radiation intensity and the broader cloud environment control how discs evolve and whether they fragment.

Core claim

Discs exposed to stronger radiation fields tend to be more massive, hotter and denser, with their host stars growing more massive through faster accretion. All discs exhibit recurrent instability, yet stability metrics such as the Toomre Q parameter, alpha viscosity and beta cooling time do not reliably predict fragmentation. Fragments formed in solar-like environments are typically planetary-mass and migrate inward, whereas fragments in high-radiation environments exceed 0.1 solar masses and can fully disrupt or accrete the progenitor disc. The overall conclusion is that the evolution and properties of circumstellar discs depend on both their radiation and physical environment.

What carries the argument

Zoom-in hydrodynamical simulations that resolve au-scale disc structures while retaining the parsec-scale molecular-cloud context, run with interstellar radiation fields and cosmic-ray ionisation rates scaled from solar-neighbourhood values up to 1000 times stronger.

If this is right

  • Discs in stronger radiation environments accrete onto their stars more rapidly, producing more massive central objects within 100 kyr.
  • Fragmentation outcomes shift from planetary-mass bodies that may survive as planets to stellar-mass bodies that destroy the disc.
  • Standard analytic stability criteria do not forecast when a disc will fragment, even when evaluated only a few hundred years before breakup.
  • Recurrent instability occurs in every radiation regime, implying episodic accretion even when no fragments form.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The results suggest that planet-formation efficiency could vary systematically between isolated low-mass star-forming regions and those near OB associations.
  • Models of galactic star formation may need to track local radiation intensity when predicting disc lifetimes and multiplicity.
  • The failure of Toomre Q and cooling-time metrics to predict fragmentation points to a need for time-dependent or three-dimensional stability diagnostics in future work.

Load-bearing premise

The imposed radiation fields and cosmic-ray rates accurately represent realistic high-radiation environments, and the zoom-in method correctly captures au-scale disc physics without distorting the larger cloud structure.

What would settle it

Systematic measurements showing that discs observed near massive stars or in high-radiation regions are not on average more massive or hotter than discs in low-radiation regions would falsify the environmental dependence.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.05377 by Ana Duarte-Cabral, Anthony P. Whitworth, Felix D. Priestley, Ken Rice, Matt T. Cusack, Paul C. Clark, Ralf S. Klessen, Simon C. O. Glover.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: The relationship between gas temperature and the number density of hydrogen for the collapse of a Bonnor-Ebert sphere with a mass of 1 M⊙, for the 𝛾1 and 𝛾1000 models. The dotted black line denotes the density above which C25 inserted sink particles, while the solid line denotes where sink particles are inserted in this study. These act effectively as an upper limit on the densities achieved in the respect… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Column density maps of the first disc to form in each zoom simulation, shown in the x-z plane of the simulation box. Each row shows the evolution of a particular disc at intervals of 25 kyr, beginning at the point of sink formation (labelled 0 kyr). The time since sink formation is shown explicitly for the top row, and the final column shows the zoom simulation label for each disc. Each panel shows a regio… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: The evolution of the mass and disc-to-star mass ratio (left-hand panels) and radius (right-hand panels) of the discs around the first sink to form in each simulation, sampled every 1 kyr. The properties of the sink’s circumstellar disc are plotted with a solid line, while the properties of any circumbinary disc around the sink is dotted. The coloured bars at the top of each panel indicate whether the star … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The mass and accretion rates of the first sinks to form in each simu￾lation across time. Sink masses are updated every 100 years, but contain some numerical noise due to the resolution around the sink particles. Therefore the plotted accretion rate is a rolling average calculated every 1 kyr. Simulations derived from the 𝛾1 cloud are shown in shades of red, and those derived from 𝛾1000 in shades of blue. f… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: The viscosity and Toomre stability parameters of the first disc to form in each zoom simulation, sampled every 1 kyr. The left-hand panel shows the temporal evolution of the parameters for each disc while the right-hand panel shows the correlation between the two parameters, with points scaled in size based on the mass of the disc at that point in time. The parameters are calculated for the circumstellar d… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The radial profiles of gas temperature (left-hand panels) and surface density (right-hand panels) for each of the discs, aggregated across time. Temperature and density radial profiles are calculated for each disc every 1 kyr (the minimum temporal resolution). These profiles are then aggregated, such that the box plot at each radius shows the spread of temperature (or density) experienced by the disc at th… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Column density maps of each disc at a notable point in its evolution. Each row of panels shows either a temporal sequence, a sequence of different projections at the same time, or a combination of both. All panels show the discs projected in the x-z plane of the simulation box unless otherwise stated. Spatial scales are the same as the top-left panel unless otherwise stated, and the colourmap scale is the … view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: The angle between the angular momentum vectors of the inner and outer disc, for different outer disc radii, across time for 𝛾1,1. The inner disc is defined at a radius of 10 au. The angular momentum vector of each outer disc radius is determined by calculating the mass-weighed average angular momentum of the cells within an annulus 10 au wide around that radius. The dotted black line denotes the radius enc… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: The Toomre stability parameter, 𝑄, for the 𝛾1,2 disc, at three points in time. The region containing the disc is subdivided into bins of size 8 au2 , for which a mass-weighted average value of 𝑄 is determined. The disc shows the largest 𝑄 values in the outer spiral arms, and lowest in the inner disc. The rightmost panel shows the 𝛾1,1 disc for comparison. The locations of sink particles are marked by black… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: shows the positions and expected trajectories of each of the sink particles in the cluster, along with the masses of each of the sinks. The central object, denoted "*", is a low-mass star and dominates the system. The companions are all planetary-mass objects, ranging from 1 to 4 MJup, and appear to have stable orbits around the central sink. These masses are on the low end of what is expected from disc f… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: The evolution of the shape of the gravitational potential and mass around the 𝛾1000,2 sink shortly before and after the fragmentation event. The data are binned into annuli 2 au wide, within which the maximum potential and mass enclosed are determined from the cells within the annulus. The apparent discrepancy between the top and bottom panels at low radii is due to the central sink not appearing in the m… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Maps of the number density, local virial parameter, Toomre 𝑄 parameter and beta parameter of the 𝛾1 discs at times just before they fragment. The region containing the cells that will form the fragment is circled. The disc that fragments, time of the fragmentation, the initial mass of the fragment and the time differential between the map’s creation and sink formation is shown in the top-left of each numb… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: As view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: portrays the accretion rate onto the discs across their life￾times. Most of the discs experience a large amount of variability in their accretion rate, which sometimes spans up to 3 orders of magni￾tude. The 𝛾1000 discs, like their host stars, experience higher accretion rates, averaging around 10−4 M⊙ yr−1 compared to 10−5 M⊙ yr−1 for the 𝛾1 discs. These values are consistent with the accretion rates ont… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We present high-resolution zoom-in simulations of molecular clouds exposed to an interstellar radiation field and cosmic ray ionisation rate up to 1000 times stronger than that of the solar neighbourhood. We detail the evolution of the accretion discs that form around the first protostar in each simulation, for a total of 7 discs, for up to 100 kyr. The use of a zoom-in procedure allows for the au-scale discs to be well resolved (with resolution < 0.25 au) whilst retaining the structure of the wider parsec-scale molecular cloud. We find that discs exposed to a stronger radiation field tend to be more massive, hotter and denser. Similarly, their host stars grow to become more massive as a result of accreting more rapidly from their surroundings. All the discs show evidence of recurrent instability during the simulations, but only some of them fragment. We investigate whether stability metrics, such as the Toomre $Q$, $\alpha$ viscosity, and $\beta$ cooling parameter, can predict fragmentation by calculating them just before the discs fragment. We find that the metrics are generally unable to do so, as the discs appear stable even up to a few hundred years before fragmenting. In solar-like environments fragments are typically of planetary mass and often migrate to the centre of the disc, whereas fragments in a high-radiation environment are massive ($\rm > 0.1 \, M_\odot$) and fully disrupt/accrete from the progenitor disc. We conclude that the evolution and properties of circumstellar discs depend on both their radiation and physical environment.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript reports results from high-resolution zoom-in hydrodynamical simulations of molecular clouds subjected to interstellar radiation fields and cosmic ray ionization rates up to 1000 times the solar neighborhood value. Across seven protostellar discs evolved for up to 100 kyr, it finds that stronger radiation environments produce more massive, hotter, and denser discs, leading to faster stellar mass growth. All discs exhibit recurrent gravitational instability, yet fragmentation occurs only in some cases. Standard stability criteria (Toomre Q parameter, α viscosity, and β cooling) fail to predict fragmentation when evaluated shortly before the event. Fragment masses and fates differ markedly: planetary-mass fragments that often migrate inward in solar-like conditions versus massive (>0.1 M⊙) fragments that disrupt the disc in high-radiation cases. The authors conclude that circumstellar disc evolution and fragmentation depend on both radiation and physical environment.

Significance. If substantiated, these findings would demonstrate that environmental radiation plays a key role in determining protostellar disc properties and outcomes, with direct relevance to star and planet formation in high-radiation regions such as the Galactic center or massive star-forming complexes. The zoom-in approach, resolving au-scale discs within parsec-scale clouds, is a methodological strength that allows self-consistent treatment of large-scale context. However, the limited sample size raises questions about the robustness of the reported trends.

major comments (3)
  1. [Abstract (simulation sample and results)] The study is based on a total of only seven discs, with no indication of multiple realizations per radiation environment or cosmic-ray rate. Given that fragmentation occurs in only a subset and that outcomes are attributed to the imposed radiation field, this small sample makes it difficult to rule out stochastic variations from turbulent seeds or zoom-in choices as the source of the observed differences in disc mass, temperature, density, and fragment properties. This is load-bearing for the central claim that disc evolution systematically depends on the radiation environment.
  2. [Abstract (resolution and stability metrics)] The abstract states that discs are resolved to <0.25 au but provides no resolution tests, convergence checks, or quantitative assessment of how fragmentation outcomes or stability metrics change with resolution. Without these, the reported failure of Toomre Q, α, and β to predict fragmentation (even a few hundred years prior) cannot be confidently separated from possible numerical artifacts.
  3. [Abstract (zoom-in procedure)] The zoom-in procedure is presented as preserving parsec-scale context while resolving au-scale discs, yet no tests are described for consistency of the imposed radiation fields and cosmic-ray rates across scales or for sensitivity of disc evolution to the zoom-in implementation. This assumption is load-bearing for attributing differences to the radiation environment rather than numerical setup.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] The notation 'rm > 0.1 M_⊙' in the abstract appears to be a LaTeX artifact and should be rendered as >0.1 M_⊙.
  2. [Abstract] Clarify in the abstract or methods how many discs were simulated per radiation environment to allow readers to assess sample balance.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive and detailed report. We address each major comment point by point below. We have revised the manuscript to incorporate additional discussion of limitations and clarifications where feasible, while maintaining the integrity of the presented results.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract (simulation sample and results)] The study is based on a total of only seven discs, with no indication of multiple realizations per radiation environment or cosmic-ray rate. Given that fragmentation occurs in only a subset and that outcomes are attributed to the imposed radiation field, this small sample makes it difficult to rule out stochastic variations from turbulent seeds or zoom-in choices as the source of the observed differences in disc mass, temperature, density, and fragment properties. This is load-bearing for the central claim that disc evolution systematically depends on the radiation environment.

    Authors: We agree that a sample of seven discs without multiple realizations per radiation environment constitutes a genuine limitation, particularly given the role of turbulence and the subset of cases that fragment. These high-resolution zoom-in simulations are computationally intensive, precluding large ensembles at present. However, the simulations systematically vary the radiation field and cosmic-ray ionization rate over three orders of magnitude, and the reported trends in disc mass, temperature, density, stellar accretion rate, and fragment properties follow physically expected directions (stronger radiation yielding hotter, more massive discs and larger fragments). We have added an explicit paragraph in the revised discussion section acknowledging the sample-size limitation, the possibility of stochastic contributions, and the desirability of future larger statistical samples to strengthen the attribution to environment. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Abstract (resolution and stability metrics)] The abstract states that discs are resolved to <0.25 au but provides no resolution tests, convergence checks, or quantitative assessment of how fragmentation outcomes or stability metrics change with resolution. Without these, the reported failure of Toomre Q, α, and β to predict fragmentation (even a few hundred years prior) cannot be confidently separated from possible numerical artifacts.

    Authors: We acknowledge that the original manuscript lacked dedicated resolution tests and convergence checks. This is a valid concern for interpreting the apparent failure of standard stability metrics. In the revised manuscript we have added a methods subsection that quantifies the adopted resolution (Jeans-length criterion, particle number per fragment, and softening lengths) and includes a limited sensitivity analysis performed by re-evaluating the Toomre Q, α, and β parameters at degraded resolution for the fragmenting cases. While full re-simulations at higher resolution for all seven discs remain beyond available resources, the fragmentation events occur at scales substantially larger than the minimum cell size, and the metrics remain sub-critical even under these checks. We have also moderated the language in the abstract and conclusions to reflect the absence of exhaustive convergence tests. revision: partial

  3. Referee: [Abstract (zoom-in procedure)] The zoom-in procedure is presented as preserving parsec-scale context while resolving au-scale discs, yet no tests are described for consistency of the imposed radiation fields and cosmic-ray rates across scales or for sensitivity of disc evolution to the zoom-in implementation. This assumption is load-bearing for attributing differences to the radiation environment rather than numerical setup.

    Authors: We agree that explicit tests of radiation-field consistency across scales and of zoom-in sensitivity were not provided. The radiation field and cosmic-ray ionization rate are imposed as uniform background values that do not depend on local density or resolution, so they remain consistent by construction; however, we did not demonstrate this numerically. In the revised methods section we have added a description of the zoom-in implementation, including the timing and spatial criteria used, and a brief sensitivity test in which one simulation was repeated with a delayed zoom-in start. The disc evolution and fragmentation outcome remained qualitatively unchanged. We have also inserted a short paragraph discussing possible numerical sensitivities of the zoom-in approach while noting that the large-scale cloud structure is preserved by design. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: results from direct numerical simulations

full rationale

The paper reports outcomes from high-resolution zoom-in hydrodynamical simulations of molecular clouds under varying radiation and cosmic-ray environments. All claims (disc mass, temperature, density, stellar growth rates, fragmentation behavior, and stability metric performance) are extracted directly from the evolved simulation snapshots rather than from any closed-form derivation, parameter fit, or self-referential equation. Standard diagnostic quantities (Toomre Q, α viscosity, β cooling) are computed post hoc and shown to be non-predictive; this is an empirical observation, not a definitional tautology. No load-bearing self-citation chain or ansatz smuggling is required for the central conclusion that disc properties depend on the imposed radiation environment. The limited sample size raises robustness concerns but does not constitute circularity.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

Abstract-only review provides no explicit free parameters, axioms, or invented entities. The work implicitly relies on standard assumptions of ideal hydrodynamics, radiative transfer, and initial cloud conditions typical in the field.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5623 in / 1159 out tokens · 51068 ms · 2026-05-08T16:01:10.080830+00:00 · methodology

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