pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2605.11245 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-11 · ⚛️ physics.geo-ph

Recognition: 2 theorem links

· Lean Theorem

Metal Saturation and the Redistribution of Hydrogen in Earth's Mantle

Jie Li, Junjie Dong, Lars P Stixrude, Paul D Asimow

Pith reviewed 2026-05-13 00:52 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ⚛️ physics.geo-ph
keywords mantlehydrogenwater storageiron disproportionationredoxsubductionviscositythermodynamics
0
0 comments X

The pith

Metallic iron from disproportionation saturates the lower mantle and reduces subducted hydrogen, drying the deep layers while allowing water to rise and wet the shallow mantle.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper argues that iron disproportionation in silicates produces metallic iron throughout much of the lower mantle across a wide range of oxidation states. Subducted hydrated silicates that reach these metal-saturated zones undergo redox reactions that convert structurally bound hydrogen into mobile reduced forms such as molecular hydrogen or iron hydrides. This leaves deep mantle rocks effectively dry and permits hydrogen to migrate upward, where it can form hydrous melts that rehydrate the overlying mantle or accumulate near the transition zone. The net effect is a sharp internal contrast between a wet shallow mantle and a dry deep mantle, with the overall water storage capacity of mantle silicates falling by 64-96 percent.

Core claim

Iron disproportionation reactions in mantle silicates produce metallic iron that drives Earth's deep mantle toward metal saturation under reduced conditions. Subducting slabs transport hydrated silicates to these depths, where interactions with metallic iron reduce structurally bound hydrogen to reduced hydrogen-bearing phases such as molecular hydrogen or iron hydrides, leaving mantle rocks in effect dry. Metal saturation can thus redistribute hydrogen internally, creating a sharp contrast between a wet shallow mantle and a dry deep mantle, decreasing mantle silicate water storage capacity by 64-96% today to only 0.1-0.8 modern ocean masses.

What carries the argument

Iron disproportionation in silicates that generates metallic iron, followed by its redox reaction with hydrogen in subducted hydrated phases.

Load-bearing premise

Subducting slabs carry enough hydrated silicates into the metal-saturated lower mantle for significant reduction to occur, and thermodynamic models correctly predict metallic iron stability and hydrogen speciation at pressures above 50 GPa.

What would settle it

Direct sampling or remote sensing that shows substantial retained water in lower-mantle minerals or the absence of any viscosity jump at the upper-lower mantle boundary would falsify the predicted redistribution.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.11245 by Jie Li, Junjie Dong, Lars P Stixrude, Paul D Asimow.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Predicted ferric content in mantle minerals within pyrolite at whole-rock Fe3+/ P Fe = 1%, benchmarked against experimental data collected under similarly reduced conditions. This composition represents a reduced endmember of Earth’s mantle, in which metal saturation is present at all depths above 10 GPa with f O2(∆IW) ≈ −1. (a) Ferric content in clinopyroxene show negligible temperature dependence but inc… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Distribution of metallic Fe0 in the present-day mantle (Tp = 1600 K) for the reduced (1%, a) and oxidized (10%, b) endmembers. (a) In the reduced endmember, metal saturation begins in the upper mantle, and Fe0 abundance decreases with depth as metal production from bridgmanite becomes less favorable at higher pressure. (b) In the oxidized endmember, metal saturation is confined to the upper- and mid-lower … view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Widespread metal saturation destabilizes structural OH in NAMs, resulting in a dry deep mantle. Dis￾tribution of metal abundance (a) and water storage capacity (b) in Earth’s mantle are modeled as functions of depth (km), potential temperature Tp (K), and oxidation state, expressed as the whole-rock Fe3+ / P Fe ratio (%). Present-day whole-rock Fe3+ / P Fe = 1–3% yields persistent metal saturation from the… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Metallic Fe0 amounts to 8.6–10.5 × 1021 kg (2120–2600 ppm by weight) in Earth’s mantle today, stabilizing near the base of the upper mantle and extending to the core–mantle boundary. Whole-mantle metallic Fe0 abundance (a) and saturation depth (b) are modeled as functions of potential temperature Tp (K) and oxidation state, expressed as the whole-rock Fe3+ P/ Fe ratio (%). Bulk metallic Fe0 abundance (expr… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Whole-mantle water storage capacity falls by 64–96% today, from 2.3 to 0.1–0.8 modern ocean masses, when metal saturation is taken into account. Whole￾mantle water storage capacity with metal saturation (this work, a) are modeled as functions of potential temperature Tp (K) and oxidation state, expressed as the whole-rock Fe3+ P/ Fe ratio (%), and its decrease relative to metal-free models (b, Dong et al.,… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Iron disproportionation reactions in mantle silicates can produce metallic iron that drives Earth's deep mantle toward metal saturation under reduced conditions. Subducting slabs transport hydrated silicates to these depths, where interactions with metallic iron can reduce structurally bound hydrogen in silicates to reduced hydrogen-bearing phases, such as molecular hydrogen or iron hydrides, leaving mantle rocks in effect dry. Using the thermodynamic code HeFESTo with its latest self-consistent treatment of iron-bearing mantle phases, we investigate the stability and distribution of metallic iron in Earth's pyrolitic mantle across a broad range of oxidation states, represented by whole-rock Fe3+/$\Sigma$Fe ratio from 1% to 10%. We find that metallic iron is present through much of the lower mantle across this range and, under very reduced compositions of whole-rock Fe3+/$\Sigma$Fe = 1-3%, extends into the upper mantle. Where subducted water meets metal-saturated regions, hydrous melts may form and migrate upward, rehydrating the overlying mantle or pooling near the transition zone. Metal saturation can thus redistribute hydrogen internally, creating a sharp contrast between a wet shallow mantle and a dry deep mantle. This redox-driven redistribution can decrease mantle silicate water storage capacity by 64-96% today, to only 0.1-0.8 modern ocean masses, and may explain the viscosity contrast near the upper-lower mantle boundary. Although quantitative estimates of metal abundance and distribution depend on thermodynamic assumptions and remain uncertain above 50 GPa, our results reveal the role of redox reactions between disproportionated iron and subducted water in governing the speciation and redistribution of hydrogen in Earth's mantle.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 1 minor

Summary. The paper claims that iron disproportionation produces metallic iron in mantle silicates, driving metal saturation under reduced conditions. Subducting hydrated silicates interact with this metal to reduce structurally bound hydrogen to H2 or FeH_x phases, leaving deep mantle rocks effectively dry. Using the HeFESTo thermodynamic code with self-consistent iron-phase treatment, the authors model metallic iron stability in pyrolitic mantle for whole-rock Fe3+/ΣFe ratios of 1-10%. They find metal present through much of the lower mantle (extending into the upper mantle at 1-3% ratios). This enables redox-driven internal hydrogen redistribution, producing a wet shallow mantle and dry deep mantle. The process is said to decrease silicate water storage capacity by 64-96% today (to 0.1-0.8 modern ocean masses) and may explain the viscosity contrast near the upper-lower mantle boundary. Quantitative estimates are noted to depend on thermodynamic assumptions and remain uncertain above 50 GPa.

Significance. If the modeled mechanism holds, it supplies a self-consistent redox pathway for generating sharp mantle hydration contrasts and viscosity changes driven by subduction and iron disproportionation, without external water sources. This could help reconcile geophysical observations of upper-mantle hydration with lower-mantle dryness. The use of HeFESTo's self-consistent thermodynamic database for iron-bearing phases across a range of oxidation states is a clear strength, allowing systematic exploration of metal stability as a function of Fe3+/ΣFe.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The central quantitative result (64-96% reduction in silicate water storage capacity, yielding 0.1-0.8 ocean masses) is derived from HeFESTo outputs for metallic iron stability and H speciation. The abstract itself states that 'quantitative estimates of metal abundance and distribution depend on thermodynamic assumptions and remain uncertain above 50 GPa,' yet no sensitivity tests, alternative databases, or comparisons to high-pressure experiments (e.g., diamond-anvil cell data on Fe-bearing pyrolite at 25-100 GPa) are described. This directly limits in the reported percentages and the viscosity-contrast explanation.
  2. [Abstract] Abstract: The claim that subducting slabs deliver sufficient hydrated silicates to metal-saturated lower-mantle regions for significant reduction reactions is asserted without supporting flux calculations, slab transport models, or estimates of reaction efficiency. This assumption is load-bearing for the proposed redistribution mechanism but is not quantified or tested within the presented modeling framework.
minor comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The ratio 'whole-rock Fe3+/ΣFe' is introduced without a parenthetical definition on first use, although it is standard in the field; adding '(ferric iron to total iron)' would improve immediate clarity for a broad readership.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their thoughtful comments on our manuscript. We provide point-by-point responses to the major comments below and outline revisions to address the concerns raised.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The central quantitative result (64-96% reduction in silicate water storage capacity, yielding 0.1-0.8 ocean masses) is derived from HeFESTo outputs for metallic iron stability and H speciation. The abstract itself states that 'quantitative estimates of metal abundance and distribution depend on thermodynamic assumptions and remain uncertain above 50 GPa,' yet no sensitivity tests, alternative databases, or comparisons to high-pressure experiments (e.g., diamond-anvil cell data on Fe-bearing pyrolite at 25-100 GPa) are described. This directly limits in the reported percentages and the viscosity-contrast explanation.

    Authors: We agree that the quantitative results depend on the thermodynamic model employed, as already noted in the abstract. The HeFESTo database is self-consistent and incorporates the latest experimental constraints on iron-bearing phases. However, we recognize that explicit sensitivity tests to alternative databases or direct comparisons to diamond-anvil cell experiments at pressures above 50 GPa are not included. In the revised manuscript, we will expand the discussion to include a qualitative assessment of how variations in thermodynamic parameters might affect metal stability and add references to relevant high-pressure experimental studies on Fe-bearing pyrolite. Full quantitative sensitivity analyses would require substantial additional computational work and are beyond the current scope, but we will highlight this limitation more prominently. Thus, this will be addressed partially through enhanced discussion. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The claim that subducting slabs deliver sufficient hydrated silicates to metal-saturated lower-mantle regions for significant reduction reactions is asserted without supporting flux calculations, slab transport models, or estimates of reaction efficiency. This assumption is load-bearing for the proposed redistribution mechanism but is not quantified or tested within the presented modeling framework.

    Authors: The primary focus of our study is the thermodynamic modeling of metal saturation in the mantle using HeFESTo and the implications for hydrogen speciation upon interaction with subducted water. We do not perform detailed slab transport or flux calculations, as these are typically addressed in geodynamic modeling studies. The assertion is based on the established fact that subducting slabs carry significant amounts of water into the mantle and that metal-saturated regions exist in the lower mantle according to our models. To address this, in revision we will include order-of-magnitude estimates of subducted water flux drawn from the literature and discuss the potential efficiency of redox reactions based on experimental studies of iron-water interactions. We will clarify that while the mechanism is thermodynamically feasible, quantitative global redistribution rates require integration with geodynamic models. This represents a partial revision focused on adding supporting context from existing literature. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; forward modeling via external thermodynamic code

full rationale

The derivation consists of running the external HeFESTo code (with its self-consistent iron-phase treatment) over a range of whole-rock Fe3+/ΣFe values to determine metallic iron stability, then using those results to infer possible redox-driven hydrogen redistribution and storage-capacity reduction. No equations or steps in the abstract reduce a claimed prediction back to a fitted parameter or self-citation by construction. The paper explicitly flags that quantitative estimates depend on thermodynamic assumptions and remain uncertain above 50 GPa, treating the output as model-dependent rather than a self-derived necessity. This is a standard forward-modeling workflow against external benchmarks and does not match any of the enumerated circularity patterns.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the HeFESTo thermodynamic database, which incorporates numerous parameters fitted to experimental data, plus the assumption that equilibrium phase calculations apply to the described redox reactions; the oxidation-state range is treated as an input variable rather than a fitted output.

free parameters (1)
  • whole-rock Fe3+/ΣFe ratio = 1-10%
    Varied from 1% to 10% to represent different mantle oxidation states and determine the extent of metallic iron stability
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Thermodynamic equilibrium governs phase stability and speciation in mantle silicates
    Invoked throughout the HeFESTo calculations for metallic iron presence and hydrogen reduction
  • domain assumption Subducting slabs deliver hydrated silicates to metal-saturated lower-mantle depths
    Required for the interaction that produces hydrogen redistribution to occur

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5608 in / 1571 out tokens · 90188 ms · 2026-05-13T00:52:26.230966+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

199 extracted references · 199 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    Science , author =

    Substantial water retained early in. Science , author =. 2025 , pages =. doi:10.1126/science.adx5883 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1126/science.adx5883 2025

  2. [2]

    Electrical

    Karato, Shun‐Ichiro and Wang, Duojun , editor =. Electrical. Physics and. 2013 , doi =

    work page 2013

  3. [3]

    Surveys in Geophysics , author =

    On. Surveys in Geophysics , author =. 2016 , pages =. doi:10.1007/s10712-015-9353-z , language =

    work page doi:10.1007/s10712-015-9353-z 2016

  4. [4]

    American Mineralogist , author =

    -. American Mineralogist , author =. 1987 , pages =

    work page 1987

  5. [5]

    Physics and Chemistry of Minerals , author =

    Structure and crystal chemistry of hydrous wadsleyite,. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals , author =. doi:10.1007/BF00202032 , language =

    work page doi:10.1007/bf00202032

  6. [6]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    Numerical modeling on global-scale mantle water cycle and its impact on the sea-level change , volume =. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2023 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118312 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118312 2023

  7. [7]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    Storage capacity of. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2005 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.04.022 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.04.022 2005

  8. [8]

    Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems , author =

    H _. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems , author =. 2008 , pages =. doi:10.1029/2007GC001707 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1029/2007gc001707 2008

  9. [9]

    Communications Earth & Environment , author =

    Buffering of mantle conditions through water cycling and thermal feedbacks maintains magmatism over geologic time , volume =. Communications Earth & Environment , author =. 2022 , pages =. doi:10.1038/s43247-022-00617-0 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1038/s43247-022-00617-0 2022

  10. [10]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    The coupled effects of mantle mixing and a water-dependent viscosity on the surface ocean , volume =. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2020 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2019.115881 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2019.115881 2020

  11. [11]

    Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology , author =

    Solubility of water in the , and phases of (. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology , author =. 1996 , pages =. doi:10.1007/s004100050161 , number =

    work page doi:10.1007/s004100050161 1996

  12. [12]

    Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry , author =

    Remote. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry , author =. 2006 , pages =. doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.62.15 , language =

    work page doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.62.15 2006

  13. [13]

    Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , author =

    Metallic iron limits silicate hydration in. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , author =. 2019 , pages =. doi:10.1073/pnas.1908716116 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1073/pnas.1908716116 2019

  14. [14]

    AGU Advances , author =

    Constraining the. AGU Advances , author =. 2021 , pages =. doi:10.1029/2020AV000323 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1029/2020av000323 2021

  15. [15]

    Geophysical Research Letters , author =

    Chemical. Geophysical Research Letters , author =. 2018 , pages =. doi:10.1002/2017GL075720 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1002/2017gl075720 2018

  16. [16]

    Science , author =

    Hydrogen. Science , author =. 1997 , pages =. doi:10.1126/science.278.5344.1781 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1126/science.278.5344.1781 1997

  17. [17]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    Bridgmanite is nearly dry at the top of the lower mantle , volume =. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2021 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117088 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117088 2021

  18. [18]

    Geophysical Research Letters , author =

    Water. Geophysical Research Letters , author =. 2019 , pages =. doi:10.1029/2019GL084630 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1029/2019gl084630 2019

  19. [19]

    Nature , author =

    Experimental evidence for the existence of iron-rich metal in the. Nature , author =. 2004 , pages =. doi:10.1038/nature02413 , number =

    work page doi:10.1038/nature02413 2004

  20. [20]

    Nature , author =

    Metal saturation in the upper mantle , volume =. Nature , author =. 2007 , pages =. doi:10.1038/nature06183 , language =

    work page doi:10.1038/nature06183 2007

  21. [21]

    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences , author =

    Water,. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences , author =. 2006 , pages =. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125211 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125211 2006

  22. [22]

    and Morbidelli, A

    Dauphas, N. and Morbidelli, A. , year =. Geochemical and. Treatise on. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.01301-2 , pages =

    work page doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-095975-7.01301-2

  23. [23]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    Comparative deep. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2018 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.08.023 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.08.023 2018

  24. [24]

    Lithos , author =

    Distribution and transport of hydrogen in the lithospheric mantle:. Lithos , author =. 2016 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2015.11.012 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2015.11.012 2016

  25. [25]

    Nature , author =

    Hydrous mantle transition zone indicated by ringwoodite included within diamond , volume =. Nature , author =. 2014 , pages =. doi:10.1038/nature13080 , language =

    work page doi:10.1038/nature13080 2014

  26. [26]

    Science , author =

    Ice-. Science , author =. 2018 , pages =. doi:10.1126/science.aao3030 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1126/science.aao3030 2018

  27. [27]

    Science , author =

    Dehydration melting at the top of the lower mantle , volume =. Science , author =. 2014 , pages =. doi:10.1126/science.1253358 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1126/science.1253358 2014

  28. [28]

    Chemical Geology , author =

    Hydrous minerals and the storage of water in the deep mantle , volume =. Chemical Geology , author =. 2015 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2015.05.005 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2015.05.005 2015

  29. [29]

    2006 , doi =

    Earth's. 2006 , doi =

    work page 2006

  30. [30]

    Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta , author =

    The composition and redox state of bridgmanite in the lower mantle as a function of oxygen fugacity , volume =. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta , author =. 2021 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2021.02.036 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.gca.2021.02.036 2021

  31. [31]

    Nature Geoscience , author =

    Bridgmanite’s ferric iron content determined. Nature Geoscience , author =. 2025 , file =. doi:10.1038/s41561-025-01725-0 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41561-025-01725-0 2025

  32. [32]

    Geophysical Research Letters , author =

    Deep. Geophysical Research Letters , author =. 2025 , pages =

    work page 2025

  33. [33]

    Science China Earth Sciences , author =

    Iron hydride (. Science China Earth Sciences , author =. 2025 , pages =. doi:10.1007/s11430-024-1544-6 , language =

    work page doi:10.1007/s11430-024-1544-6 2025

  34. [34]

    Nature Geoscience , author =

    A hydrogen-enriched layer in the topmost outer core sourced from deeply subducted water , volume =. Nature Geoscience , author =. 2023 , pages =. doi:10.1038/s41561-023-01324-x , language =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41561-023-01324-x 2023

  35. [35]

    Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta , author =

    Effect of oxygen fugacity on. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta , author =. 2016 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.11.007 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.11.007 2016

  36. [36]

    Nature Communications , author =

    Molecular hydrogen in minerals as a clue to interpret. Nature Communications , author =. 2020 , pages =. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17442-8 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17442-8 2020

  37. [37]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    Solubility of molecular hydrogen in silicate melts and consequences for volatile evolution of terrestrial planets , volume =. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2012 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.06.031 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.06.031 2012

  38. [38]

    Geochemical Perspectives Letters , author =

    Molecular hydrogen in mantle minerals , issn =. Geochemical Perspectives Letters , author =. 2016 , pages =. doi:10.7185/geochemlet.1616 , urldate =

    work page doi:10.7185/geochemlet.1616 2016

  39. [39]

    Geophysical Research Letters , author =

    Iron hydride formed by the reaction of iron, silicate, and water:. Geophysical Research Letters , author =. 1995 , pages =. doi:10.1029/95GL01792 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1029/95gl01792 1995

  40. [40]

    Geophysical Research Letters , author =

    Chemical. Geophysical Research Letters , author =. 2020 , pages =. doi:10.1029/2020GL089616 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1029/2020gl089616 2020

  41. [41]

    Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors , author =

    Stability of. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors , author =. 2012 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2012.01.002 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2012.01.002 2012

  42. [42]

    Nature Communications , author =

    Extensive iron–water exchange at. Nature Communications , author =. 2024 , pages =. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-52677-9 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41467-024-52677-9 2024

  43. [43]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    Hydrogen partitioning between iron and ringwoodite:. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2009 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.08.034 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.08.034 2009

  44. [44]

    Nature Communications , author =

    Hydrogenation of iron in the early stage of. Nature Communications , author =. 2017 , pages =. doi:10.1038/ncomms14096 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1038/ncomms14096 2017

  45. [45]

    Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors , author =

    The system iron-enstatite-water at high pressures and temperatures—formation of iron hydride and some geophysical implications , volume =. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors , author =. 1984 , pages =. doi:10.1016/0031-9201(84)90014-1 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/0031-9201(84)90014-1 1984

  46. [46]

    Nature Communications , author =

    Experimental evidence for hydrogen incorporation into. Nature Communications , author =. 2021 , pages =. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22035-0 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22035-0 2021

  47. [47]

    Scientific Reports , author =

    Behavior of light elements in iron-silicate-water-sulfur system during early. Scientific Reports , author =. 2021 , pages =. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91801-3 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91801-3 2021

  48. [48]

    Planets for

    Dole, Stephen and Asimov, Isaac , year =. Planets for

    work page

  49. [49]

    Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences , author =

    Global water cycle and the coevolution of the. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences , author =. 2017 , pages =. doi:10.1098/rsta.2015.0393 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1098/rsta.2015.0393 2017

  50. [50]

    Journal of Geophysical Research , author =

    Subduction factory: 4. Journal of Geophysical Research , author =. 2011 , pages =. doi:10.1029/2010JB007922 , language =

    work page doi:10.1029/2010jb007922 2011

  51. [51]

    Oceanography , author =

    The. Oceanography , author =. 2010 , pages =. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2010.51 , language =

    work page doi:10.5670/oceanog.2010.51 2010

  52. [52]

    Stixrude, Lars and Lithgow-Bertelloni, Carolina , year =

    work page

  53. [53]

    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences , author =

    The. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences , author =. 2008 , pages =. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.36.031207.124322 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.36.031207.124322 2008

  54. [54]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    The deep. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2023 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118311 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118311 2023

  55. [55]

    Geophysical Journal International , author =

    Thermal expansivity, heat capacity and bulk modulus of the mantle , volume =. Geophysical Journal International , author =. 2021 , pages =. doi:10.1093/gji/ggab394 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1093/gji/ggab394 2021

  56. [56]

    Geophysical Journal International , author =

    Thermodynamics of mantle minerals -. Geophysical Journal International , author =. 2005 , pages =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2005.02642.x , language =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-246x.2005.02642.x 2005

  57. [57]

    Geophysical Journal International , author =

    Thermodynamics of mantle minerals -. Geophysical Journal International , author =. 2011 , pages =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04890.x , language =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-246x.2010.04890.x 2011

  58. [58]

    Geophysical Journal International , author =

    Thermodynamics of mantle minerals –. Geophysical Journal International , author =. 2024 , pages =. doi:10.1093/gji/ggae126 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1093/gji/ggae126 2024

  59. [59]

    , editor =

    McCammon, Catherine A. , editor =. Mantle oxidation state and oxygen fugacity:. Geophysical. 2005 , doi =

    work page 2005

  60. [60]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    Major and trace element composition of the depleted. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2005 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.12.005 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.12.005 2005

  61. [61]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    Thermal history of the. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2010 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.01.022 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.01.022 2010

  62. [62]

    Icarus , author =

    Water storage capacity of the martian mantle through time , volume =. Icarus , author =. 2022 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2022.115113 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2022.115113 2022

  63. [63]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    Partitioning of water during melting of the. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2006 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.06.014 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.06.014 2006

  64. [64]

    Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry , author =

    Thermodynamics of. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry , author =. 2006 , pages =. doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.62.9 , language =

    work page doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.62.9 2006

  65. [65]

    Mantle redox , copyright =

    Aulbach, Sonja and Brounce, Maryjo , year =. Mantle redox , copyright =. Treatise on. doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-99762-1.00101-7 , pages =

    work page doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99762-1.00101-7

  66. [66]

    Science , author =

    Water. Science , author =. 2007 , pages =. doi:10.1126/science.1135422 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1126/science.1135422 2007

  67. [67]

    American Mineralogist , author =

    Hydrogen solubility and speciation in natural, gem-quality chromian diopside , volume =. American Mineralogist , author =. 2004 , pages =. doi:10.2138/am-2004-0703 , language =

    work page doi:10.2138/am-2004-0703 2004

  68. [68]

    Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology , author =

    Water solubility in pyrope to 100 kbar , volume =. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology , author =. 1997 , pages =. doi:10.1007/s004100050321 , number =

    work page doi:10.1007/s004100050321 1997

  69. [69]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    Water partitioning between bridgmanite and postperovskite in the lowermost mantle , volume =. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2016 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.08.009 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.08.009 2016

  70. [70]

    Geophysical Journal International , author =

    Effect of. Geophysical Journal International , author =. 2014 , pages =. doi:10.1093/gji/ggu045 , language =

    work page doi:10.1093/gji/ggu045 2014

  71. [71]

    Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth , author =

    Impact‐. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth , author =. 2025 , pages =. doi:10.1029/2024JB030817 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1029/2024jb030817 2025

  72. [72]

    Geophysical Research Letters , author =

    Partitioning of. Geophysical Research Letters , author =. 2024 , pages =. doi:10.1029/2023GL107979 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1029/2023gl107979 2024

  73. [73]

    Nature , author =

    Deep penetration of molten iron into the mantle caused by a morphological instability , volume =. Nature , author =. 2012 , pages =. doi:10.1038/nature11663 , language =

    work page doi:10.1038/nature11663 2012

  74. [74]

    Geophysical Research Letters , author =

    Modeling core fluid motions and the drift of magnetic field patterns at the. Geophysical Research Letters , author =. 1990 , pages =. doi:10.1029/GL017i010p01473 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1029/gl017i010p01473 1990

  75. [75]

    Nature Communications , author =

    Pressure stabilizes ferrous iron in bridgmanite under hydrous deep lower mantle conditions , volume =. Nature Communications , author =. 2024 , pages =. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-48665-8 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41467-024-48665-8 2024

  76. [76]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    A reversed redox gradient in. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2021 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117181 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117181 2021

  77. [77]

    Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =

    A decrease in the. Earth and Planetary Science Letters , author =. 2023 , pages =. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118440 , language =

    work page doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118440 2023

  78. [78]

    Nature Geoscience , author =

    Oxidized iron in garnets from the mantle transition zone , volume =. Nature Geoscience , author =. 2018 , pages =. doi:10.1038/s41561-017-0055-7 , language =

    work page doi:10.1038/s41561-017-0055-7 2018

  79. [79]

    Geophysical Research Letters , author =

    High‐. Geophysical Research Letters , author =. 2022 , pages =. doi:10.1029/2021GL096260 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.1029/2021gl096260 2022

  80. [80]

    American Mineralogist , author =

    Magnetism and equation of states of fcc. American Mineralogist , author =. 2023 , pages =. doi:10.2138/am-2022-8452 , abstract =

    work page doi:10.2138/am-2022-8452 2023

Showing first 80 references.