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arxiv: 2606.20175 · v1 · pith:ELN4O2P6new · submitted 2026-06-18 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

A Consistent Comparison of Intracluster Light Assembly in Simulations I. Redshift Evolution and Progenitor Galaxies

Harley J. Brown (1) , Garreth Martin (1) , Frazer R. Pearce (1) , Yannick M. Bah\'e (1 , 2) , Joseph Butler (1) , Weiguang Cui (3 , 4)
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Nina A. Hatch (1) Alexander Knebe (3 5) ((1) University of Nottingham (2) \'Ecole Polytechnique F\'ed\'erale de Lausanne (3) Universidad Aut\'onoma de Madrid (4) Edinburgh Royal Observatory (5) University of Western Australia)
This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-26 16:49 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords intracluster lightgalaxy clustershydrodynamical simulationsredshift evolutionstellar mass fractionssatellite galaxiesprogenitor galaxiestidal stripping
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The pith

A consistent way of identifying intracluster light produces matching fractions of 0.1-0.2 across four simulations and shows no evolution from redshift 2 to the present.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper applies one uniform method for separating intracluster light from central galaxies and satellites to four different hydrodynamical simulations of cluster-mass haloes. This approach yields similar present-day ICL stellar mass fractions and finds that those fractions remain roughly constant when the same clusters are tracked backward in time. The absolute value of the ICL fraction changes with how the light is defined, yet the simulations agree with each other once the definition is fixed. Tracing the origin of the ICL stars shows that galaxies falling in with stellar masses between roughly 10^10.5 and 10^11.5 solar masses supply most of it.

Core claim

For the fiducial ICL definition the four simulations produce consistent z approximately 0 stellar mass fractions of about 0.1 to 0.2. Tracking the progenitors of z approximately 0 clusters back to z greater than or equal to 2 reveals no significant change in average ICL mass fractions. Alternative definitions make the absolute fraction highly sensitive to the chosen boundary, but a single consistent identification method removes discrepancies between the simulations. Lower-mass satellites contribute slightly more relative to their own mass, yet the infalling satellite mass function sets which galaxies dominate, so most ICL stars come from systems with infall stellar masses above 10^10 solar

What carries the argument

The homogenized ICL identification framework that applies identical criteria to separate diffuse light, central galaxy, and satellites in every simulation.

If this is right

  • ICL assembly histories look similar across different simulation codes once the identification method is standardized.
  • Under the fiducial definition the average ICL mass fraction stays roughly constant from redshift greater than 2 to the present day.
  • The dominant ICL contribution comes from satellites that entered the cluster with stellar masses above 10^10 solar masses.
  • Whether the ICL fraction appears to decrease toward higher redshift depends entirely on the exact boundary chosen between ICL and the central galaxy.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Observers comparing real cluster data to simulations will need to match the exact ICL definition used in the models.
  • The early assembly of ICL implied by the lack of evolution could be tested by measuring ICL fractions in clusters observed at redshift 1 to 2.
  • The result that intermediate-mass satellites dominate suggests that surveys of infalling galaxies in clusters can predict the ICL content.

Load-bearing premise

Applying the same identification rules to all simulations does not create definition-dependent biases that differ systematically between the codes.

What would settle it

Running the identical identification procedure on a new set of simulations and finding large differences in the measured ICL fractions would show the consistency result does not hold.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.20175 by 2), (2) \'Ecole Polytechnique F\'ed\'erale de Lausanne, (3) Universidad Aut\'onoma de Madrid, 4), (4) Edinburgh Royal Observatory, 5) ((1) University of Nottingham, (5) University of Western Australia), Alexander Knebe (3, Frazer R. Pearce (1), Garreth Martin (1), Harley J. Brown (1), Joseph Butler (1), Nina A. Hatch (1), Weiguang Cui (3, Yannick M. Bah\'e (1.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Violin plots showing the distribution of stellar mass at 𝑧 ≈ 0 between satellite galaxies, the BCG, and the ICL in simulated galaxy clusters from Horizon-AGN (leftmost panel), TNG100 (middle-left panel), The Three Hundred Gizmo-Simba 7K (middle-right panel), and Hydrangea (rightmost panel), when uniformly applying our fiducial ICL identification methodology (based on local stellar density). Combined BCG + … view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Top Panels: Median ICL (green circles) and BCG + ICL (gold squares) stellar mass fraction as a function of lookback time (LBT) for 𝑧 ≈ 0 galaxy clusters and their main progenitor structures at earlier times drawn from Horizon-AGN (leftmost panel), TNG100 (middle-left panel), The Three Hundred Gizmo-Simba 7K (middle-right panel), and Hydrangea (rightmost panel). Bottom Panels: Median mass of structures cons… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Median ICL stellar mass fraction as a function of lookback time (LBT) for a selection of different BCG-ICL separation methodologies, for galaxy clusters drawn from Horizon-AGN (red circles), TNG100 (blue squares), The Three Hundred Gizmo-Simba 7K (green triangles), and Hydrangea (purple pentagons). The shaded regions are bounded by the 16th and 84th percentiles of the ICL fractions from each simulation. Th… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The mean fractions of 𝑧 ≈ 0 ICL and BCG + ICL stars liberated within the cluster halo from a cluster’s own satellite galaxies (that joined the cluster after 𝑧 ∼ 3) for the galaxy cluster samples drawn from Horizon-AGN (red), TNG100 (blue), The Three Hundred Gizmo-Simba 7K (green), and Hydrangea (purple). The error bars indicate the 16th-84th percentile range of each cluster sample. that in all four conside… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Top Panel: Cubic spline functions fitted to the mean fraction of associated stars liberated to the ICL ( 𝑓lib-ICL) by 𝑧 ≈ 0 as a function of progenitor galaxy infall stellar mass, 𝑀∗, for satellite galaxies joining Horizon-AGN (red), TNG100 (blue), The Three Hundred Gizmo-Simba 7K (green), and Hydrangea (purple) clusters after 𝑧 ∼ 3. Linear extrapola￾tion beyond the range of stellar masses used for fitting… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Schechter (1976) function (Equation 1) fits to the infalling satel￾lite stellar mass function of the cluster samples drawn from Horizon-AGN (red), TNG100 (blue), The Three Hundred Gizmo-Simba 7K (green), and Hydrangea (purple) – all renormalised to an arbitrary total accreted stellar mass of 5 × 1012 M⊙. Dotted lines indicate extrapolation beyond the range of masses used for fitting. The shaded regions ind… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Top Panel: Cumulative contribution of satellite galaxies to the ICL as a function of infall stellar mass (normalized to the total predicted ICL mass contribution from satellites), for the simulated cluster samples drawn from Horizon-AGN (red), TNG100 (blue), The Three Hundred Gizmo-Simba 7K (green), and Hydrangea (purple). Dotted lines indicate extrapolation beyond the range of masses used for fitting. The… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The tidal stripping of satellite galaxies and the stellar detritus ejected during galaxy mergers builds up a diffuse stellar component in galaxy clusters known as the intracluster light (ICL). We investigate ICL assembly in cluster-mass haloes ($M_{178c}\sim10^{14}-10^{15}$ M$_\odot$) using four different hydrodynamical simulations (Horizon-AGN, TNG100, The Three Hundred Gizmo-Simba 7K, and Hydrangea) under a homogenized ICL identification framework. For our fiducial ICL definition we obtain broadly consistent $z\approx0$ ICL stellar mass fractions ($\sim0.1-0.2$) and, by tracking the progenitors of $z\approx0$ clusters back to $z\gtrsim2$, find no significant evolution in average ICL mass fractions. Alternative approaches for distinguishing the ICL from the central galaxy show the absolute ICL fraction to be highly sensitive to adopted definition, but we never find any significant inter-simulation discrepancies when implementing a consistent methodology to identify the ICL. Whether the average ICL mass fraction falls with increasing redshift or does not evolve is determined by the ICL definition adopted. By tracing $z\approx0$ ICL stars back to their progenitor galaxies, we find that lower-mass satellites typically make slightly larger ICL contributions relative to their mass in every considered simulation, but which galaxies make the dominant contribution to the ICL is primarily controlled by the infalling satellite mass function. Most ICL stars sourced from satellite galaxies are therefore expected to originate from galaxies with infall stellar masses above $\sim10^{10}$ M$_\odot$ and largely within $10^{10.5}-10^{11.5}$ M$_\odot$.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper compares intracluster light (ICL) assembly across four hydrodynamical simulations (Horizon-AGN, TNG100, The Three Hundred Gizmo-Simba, Hydrangea) in cluster-mass haloes using a single homogenized ICL identification framework. For the fiducial definition it reports consistent z≈0 ICL stellar mass fractions (~0.1-0.2), no significant redshift evolution when tracking z≈0 cluster progenitors back to z≳2, high sensitivity of absolute fractions to the choice of ICL definition, and that ICL stars are sourced primarily from satellites with infall stellar masses ≳10^10 M_⊙ (peaking in 10^10.5-10^11.5 M_⊙).

Significance. If the homogenized framework is shown to be robust against code-specific biases, the work supplies a useful cross-code benchmark demonstrating that ICL fractions and their lack of redshift evolution are not strongly sensitive to differences in resolution, feedback, or merger tracking once identification criteria are fixed. The progenitor-tracing analysis and the demonstration that the satellite mass function largely controls which galaxies dominate ICL contributions are concrete, falsifiable results that can guide both simulation interpretation and observational comparisons.

major comments (2)
  1. [fiducial definition and alternative approaches] Fiducial definition and alternative approaches section: the central claim of no significant inter-simulation discrepancies rests on the assumption that identical distance/binding thresholds classify particles equivalently across codes whose stellar particle distributions differ in spatial extent and binding-energy histograms due to resolution and feedback variations; the manuscript does not report a quantitative test (e.g., overlap integrals or threshold-variation matrices per code) of definition-code interaction terms.
  2. [redshift evolution] Redshift-evolution analysis (progenitor tracking to z≳2): the statement that average ICL mass fractions show no significant evolution is definition-dependent, yet the paper does not supply per-definition error budgets or bootstrap uncertainties on the redshift trend that would allow readers to judge whether the “no evolution” result for the fiducial case is statistically distinguishable from mild decline.
minor comments (2)
  1. [abstract] The abstract states “broadly consistent” fractions without quoting the precise numerical range or the number of clusters per simulation; a table or explicit interval would improve clarity.
  2. Notation for the ICL mass fraction (e.g., f_ICL) should be defined once at first use and used consistently thereafter rather than alternating with descriptive phrases.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their thoughtful comments on our manuscript. We address the major comments point by point below, and have revised the manuscript accordingly where appropriate.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [fiducial definition and alternative approaches] Fiducial definition and alternative approaches section: the central claim of no significant inter-simulation discrepancies rests on the assumption that identical distance/binding thresholds classify particles equivalently across codes whose stellar particle distributions differ in spatial extent and binding-energy histograms due to resolution and feedback variations; the manuscript does not report a quantitative test (e.g., overlap integrals or threshold-variation matrices per code) of definition-code interaction terms.

    Authors: We agree that a direct quantitative assessment of how the definition interacts with code-specific particle distributions would strengthen the robustness claim. While the consistency of ICL fractions across the four simulations when applying identical criteria provides indirect support for the lack of strong code-dependent biases, we did not include explicit tests such as overlap integrals or per-code threshold variation matrices in the original manuscript. In the revised version, we will add an appendix with threshold sensitivity tests applied to each simulation to quantify any potential definition-code interactions. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [redshift evolution] Redshift-evolution analysis (progenitor tracking to z≳2): the statement that average ICL mass fractions show no significant evolution is definition-dependent, yet the paper does not supply per-definition error budgets or bootstrap uncertainties on the redshift trend that would allow readers to judge whether the “no evolution” result for the fiducial case is statistically distinguishable from mild decline.

    Authors: We agree that including per-definition error budgets or bootstrap uncertainties would help readers evaluate the statistical significance of the no-evolution result. The original manuscript presents the average trends without these quantitative uncertainties. We will update the analysis and figures in the revised manuscript to include bootstrap uncertainties on the redshift evolution of ICL fractions for both the fiducial and alternative definitions. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; results extracted directly from simulation data under chosen definition

full rationale

The paper applies an externally chosen homogenized ICL identification framework uniformly across four independent hydrodynamical simulations (Horizon-AGN, TNG100, Gizmo-Simba, Hydrangea). Reported z≈0 ICL stellar mass fractions (∼0.1-0.2) and lack of redshift evolution are obtained by direct tracking of stellar particles and progenitors in the simulation outputs, without any fitted parameters, self-definitional equations, or load-bearing self-citations that reduce the claims to tautologies. Alternative definitions are tested for sensitivity but do not alter the inter-simulation consistency finding. This is self-contained against external benchmarks and matches the default expectation of no circularity.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the validity of the fiducial ICL definition chosen by the authors and on the assumption that the four simulations are comparable once that definition is fixed; no numerical free parameters are fitted inside the reported results.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Hydrodynamical simulations correctly capture the tidal stripping and merger processes that build ICL
    Invoked when interpreting the extracted stellar particles as physically meaningful ICL across all codes.

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