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arxiv: 2606.21855 · v1 · pith:SCIAVNQ2new · submitted 2026-06-20 · 🌌 astro-ph.EP

The panchromatic JWST dayside spectrum of WASP-121 b reveals a refractory-rich formation

K. Angelique Kahle , Paul Molli\`ere , Laura Kreidberg , Bertram Bitsch , Mara Attia , Silke S. Dainese , Nicholas Storm , Daniel Valentine
show 11 more authors
Thomas M. Evans-Soma H.J. Hoeijmakers Stefan Pelletier Ludmila Carone Cyril Gapp Yoav Rotman Sophia R. Vaughan D. A. Christie Louis-Philippe Coulombe Christiane Helling Thomas Henning
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Pith reviewed 2026-06-26 11:57 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.EP
keywords WASP-121 bultra-hot JupiterJWST spectroscopyatmospheric retrievalplanet formationrefractory elementsSiO
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The pith

WASP-121 b's atmosphere shows silicon-to-oxygen and silicon-to-carbon ratios several times higher than its star, indicating formation by mixed solid and gas accretion.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The study combines new JWST mid-infrared observations with existing near-infrared data to produce a complete dayside emission spectrum of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-121 b spanning 0.6 to 12 microns. Retrieval analysis detects silicon monoxide gas and derives elemental ratios enriched in refractories relative to volatiles when compared against updated stellar abundances. These ratios align with formation models in which the planet accreted material from multiple disk reservoirs rather than a single source. The spectrum also shows a temperature inversion, depleted titanium oxide, and an extra opacity source from reflected light. The findings tie the present composition to specific pathways of solid and gas accretion inside or across the water ice line.

Core claim

The atmosphere of WASP-121 b is enriched in both volatile and refractory species, with Si/O = 3.54^{+0.86}_{-0.69} times stellar and Si/C = 3.05^{+1.12}_{-0.80} times stellar. This enrichment pattern was shaped by accretion from multiple reservoirs, either through a mixture of solid and gas accretion interior to the water ice line or through continued solid accretion during inward migration from farther out in the disk. The dayside temperature profile shows a strong inversion layer with a complex structure, and an eclipse map indicates a small eastward hotspot offset of 4.8 degrees.

What carries the argument

The comparison of retrieved silicon-to-oxygen and silicon-to-carbon abundance ratios from the combined spectrum against stellar values and planet formation model predictions.

If this is right

  • The enrichment pattern supports formation by a mixture of solid and gas accretion interior to the water ice line.
  • The same pattern is also consistent with continued solid accretion while the planet migrated inward from beyond the ice line.
  • The analysis confirms titanium oxide depletion and requires an additional reflected-light opacity source with geometric albedo 0.22.
  • The temperature profile needs more complex structure than standard inversion parameterizations provide.
  • The planet could have reached its high-obliquity orbit through a later dynamical event such as scattering or Kozai cycles.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Similar panchromatic observations of other ultra-hot Jupiters could test whether refractory enrichment is common to planets that formed by mixed accretion.
  • Adding escape and vertical mixing to the retrieval models would clarify how much the observed ratios could differ from the original formation composition.
  • The small hotspot offset and complex temperature structure suggest atmospheric dynamics worth mapping with future phase-resolved data.

Load-bearing premise

The retrieved elemental ratios reflect the bulk composition delivered during formation without significant later changes from escape, mixing, or unmodeled clouds and hazes.

What would settle it

A nightside spectrum or interior model that yields stellar Si/O and Si/C ratios after including escape and mixing effects would contradict the multiple-reservoir formation claim.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.21855 by Bertram Bitsch, Christiane Helling, Cyril Gapp, D. A. Christie, Daniel Valentine, H.J. Hoeijmakers, K. Angelique Kahle, Laura Kreidberg, Louis-Philippe Coulombe, Ludmila Carone, Mara Attia, Nicholas Storm, Paul Molli\`ere, Silke S. Dainese, Sophia R. Vaughan, Stefan Pelletier, Thomas Henning, Thomas M. Evans-Soma, Yoav Rotman.

Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Normalized root-mean square (RMS) noise as a func [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Light curves and residuals of the MIRI/LRS secondary eclipse of WASP-121 b. Top: Broadband and spectroscopic light curves with the center wavelength indicated on the right. We show every fifth spectroscopic bin, starting with the second bin. Binned data and uncertainties are shown in color, and the best-fit models are shown in black. Transparent dots indicate the un￾binned data. Bottom: Residuals for light… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Panchromatic spectrum of WASP-121 b and opacity profiles from the most relevant species. NIRISS and NIRSpec data [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p006_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Retrieved temperature structures (left panel) and logarith [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Posterior density of elemental abundances and refractory-to-volatile ratios in WASP-121 b. Di [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Eclipse mapping versus uniform emission model fits and [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_6.png] view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: MIRI/LRS broadband eclipse map of WASP-121 b. The substellar point is marked with a cross and the hotspot location is marked with a star and shows 1σ uncertainties. The top panel shows the flux profile as a function of longitude with 1 and 3σ credibility bounds. lmax = 2 model, hereafter referred to as L2N2). In the top panel of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Posterior distribution of the oxygen-to-refractory and carbon-to-refractory abundance ratio from the joint retrieval analysis [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Overview of accretion scenarios for WASP-121 b dis [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Outer-companion exclusion for WASP-121 from [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: A representative HEM track for WASP-121 b, computed [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p018_11.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

One path to understand how planets form is to link their present-day atmospheric composition to predictions from planet formation models. For the hottest planets, the abundances of refractory species can provide a useful formation tracer, complementing the traditionally used C/O and overall metallicity. Here we investigate the refractory abundance in the atmosphere of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-121 b, combining new JWST MIRI/LRS observations with archival NIRSpec/G395H and NIRISS/SOSS data to obtain a panchromatic dayside emission spectrum from 0.6 to 12 $\mu$m. Our retrieval analysis detects the refractory tracer SiO gas at high confidence, in addition to previously detected volatile species. The atmosphere is enriched in volatile and refractory species, with enhanced refractory-to-volatile ratios of Si/O=$3.54^{+0.86}_{-0.69}$x stellar and Si/C=$3.05^{+1.12}_{-0.80}$x stellar, relative to new stellar abundance constraints from ESPRESSO data. In addition, we confirm the depletion of TiO and the need for an additional source of reflected light opacity with a geometric albedo of $0.22\pm0.03$. The retrieved dayside temperature profile has a strong inversion layer, with a more complex structure than standard parameterizations can accommodate, and an eclipse map analysis indicates a small eastward hotspot offset of $4.8^{+2.7\circ}_{-2.8}$. Comparing our results with models of planet formation, we find that the measured enrichment pattern was shaped by accretion from multiple reservoirs, either through a mixture of solid and gas accretion interior to the water ice line or through continued solid accretion during inward migration from farther out in the disk. Finally, we model the planet's dynamical history and find that it could reach its current high-obliquity orbit as a consequence of a post-formation dynamical event, such as planet-planet scattering or von Zeipel-Lidov-Kozai cycles.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript combines new JWST MIRI/LRS dayside emission data with archival NIRSpec/G395H and NIRISS/SOSS observations to produce a 0.6–12 μm panchromatic spectrum of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-121 b. Retrievals detect SiO at high confidence alongside volatile species, report enhanced refractory-to-volatile ratios (Si/O = 3.54^{+0.86}_{-0.69}×stellar and Si/C = 3.05^{+1.12}_{-0.80}×stellar) relative to new ESPRESSO stellar abundances, confirm TiO depletion, require an additional reflected-light source with geometric albedo 0.22±0.03, recover a complex dayside temperature inversion, and find a small eastward hotspot offset. These results are interpreted as evidence that the enrichment pattern arose from accretion from multiple reservoirs (solid+gas interior to the water ice line or continued solid accretion during migration), with dynamical modeling suggesting a post-formation high-obliquity event.

Significance. If the retrieved elemental ratios can be shown to map directly to the bulk composition delivered at formation, the work supplies a rare observational anchor for refractory tracers in ultra-hot Jupiter atmospheres and demonstrates the diagnostic power of panchromatic JWST coverage for distinguishing formation pathways. The multi-instrument dataset and explicit comparison to formation models are strengths that would elevate the paper’s impact in the exoplanet formation literature.

major comments (3)
  1. [§4] §4 (Atmospheric retrieval results): The central claim that the measured Si/O and Si/C ratios indicate accretion from multiple reservoirs requires that the retrieved abundances equal the formation-delivered bulk composition. No dedicated tests are reported that isolate the effects of atmospheric escape, vertical mixing, or unmodeled cloud/haze opacity on the apparent Si, O, and C abundances in the 0.6–12 μm spectrum; this assumption is load-bearing for the formation interpretation.
  2. [§3.2] §3.2 (Retrieval setup): The abstract notes that the retrieved temperature profile has a more complex structure than standard parameterizations can accommodate, yet the manuscript provides no quantitative description of the temperature parameterization, cloud treatments, or abundance priors used in the retrieval. These choices directly affect the reported SiO detection significance and the Si/O = 3.54^{+0.86}_{-0.69}×stellar ratio.
  3. [Table 2] Table 2 or equivalent abundance table: The reported enrichment factors are presented with 1σ uncertainties, but without an accompanying sensitivity analysis to the choice of stellar abundance constraints from ESPRESSO or to possible post-retrieval model adjustments, the robustness of the Si/C = 3.05^{+1.12}_{-0.80}×stellar value cannot be assessed.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Figure 3] Figure 3 (spectrum plot): The wavelength coverage labels and instrument contributions could be clarified to make the panchromatic nature of the dataset immediately visible to readers.
  2. [§6] The dynamical history modeling section would benefit from a brief statement of the assumed initial conditions and migration timescales to allow direct comparison with other ultra-hot Jupiter studies.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive and detailed report. We address each major comment below. Where the manuscript requires additional detail or analysis, we will revise accordingly to strengthen the presentation of our results and their interpretation.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [§4] §4 (Atmospheric retrieval results): The central claim that the measured Si/O and Si/C ratios indicate accretion from multiple reservoirs requires that the retrieved abundances equal the formation-delivered bulk composition. No dedicated tests are reported that isolate the effects of atmospheric escape, vertical mixing, or unmodeled cloud/haze opacity on the apparent Si, O, and C abundances in the 0.6–12 μm spectrum; this assumption is load-bearing for the formation interpretation.

    Authors: We agree that the interpretation linking retrieved abundances directly to formation-delivered bulk composition rests on an assumption that warrants explicit discussion. Our retrieval framework assumes thermochemical equilibrium and incorporates the dominant opacity sources in the 0.6–12 μm range, but we did not run dedicated sensitivity tests isolating atmospheric escape, vertical mixing, or additional unmodeled haze effects. For an ultra-hot Jupiter, the high temperatures and short radiative timescales make large deviations from equilibrium less likely in the observable photosphere, and our cloud/haze parameterization already explores a range of optical depths. In the revised manuscript we will add a dedicated subsection in §4 discussing these assumptions, their potential impact on the reported Si/O and Si/C ratios, and why the current data do not permit more exhaustive tests. We view this as a partial revision because the core retrieval results remain unchanged. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [§3.2] §3.2 (Retrieval setup): The abstract notes that the retrieved temperature profile has a more complex structure than standard parameterizations can accommodate, yet the manuscript provides no quantitative description of the temperature parameterization, cloud treatments, or abundance priors used in the retrieval. These choices directly affect the reported SiO detection significance and the Si/O = 3.54^{+0.86}_{-0.69}×stellar ratio.

    Authors: We acknowledge that §3.2 currently lacks the quantitative detail needed for full reproducibility and assessment of the SiO detection. In the revised manuscript we will expand this section to specify: (i) the exact temperature parameterization (number of nodes, spline order, and pressure grid), (ii) the cloud and haze models (including particle size distributions and vertical extent), and (iii) the abundance priors (uniform or log-uniform ranges and any species-specific constraints). These additions will directly address how the chosen setup influences the reported SiO significance and elemental ratios. revision: yes

  3. Referee: [Table 2] Table 2 or equivalent abundance table: The reported enrichment factors are presented with 1σ uncertainties, but without an accompanying sensitivity analysis to the choice of stellar abundance constraints from ESPRESSO or to possible post-retrieval model adjustments, the robustness of the Si/C = 3.05^{+1.12}_{-0.80}×stellar value cannot be assessed.

    Authors: We will add a sensitivity analysis to the revised manuscript. This will include: (i) re-deriving the enrichment factors using the full range of ESPRESSO stellar abundance uncertainties, and (ii) testing the effect of modest post-retrieval adjustments (e.g., different cloud optical-depth priors or temperature-profile smoothing). The results will be presented alongside Table 2 or in a new supplementary table, allowing readers to evaluate the robustness of the Si/C ratio. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; results derive from new observations and retrievals

full rationale

The paper's derivation chain begins with new JWST MIRI/LRS, NIRSpec/G395H, and NIRISS/SOSS observations plus ESPRESSO stellar abundances, proceeds through atmospheric retrieval to obtain SiO detection and Si/O, Si/C ratios, and ends with comparison to external formation models. No equations, parameters, or claims reduce by construction to prior fits or self-citations; the retrieved ratios are outputs of the data analysis rather than inputs renamed as predictions, and the formation interpretation is an external comparison rather than a self-referential derivation. The central measurements are therefore independent of the interpretive step.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

3 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the assumption that atmospheric retrieval accurately recovers elemental ratios from emission spectra and that those ratios preserve a formation signature. Free parameters include the retrieved mixing ratios, temperature profile nodes, and geometric albedo. No new entities are postulated.

free parameters (3)
  • Si/O enrichment factor
    Fitted value reported as 3.54x stellar from spectrum retrieval
  • Si/C enrichment factor
    Fitted value reported as 3.05x stellar from spectrum retrieval
  • Geometric albedo
    Fitted value 0.22 to account for reflected light opacity
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Atmospheric retrieval assumes local thermodynamic equilibrium and 1D plane-parallel geometry
    Standard assumption invoked for all exoplanet emission retrievals
  • domain assumption Retrieved elemental ratios directly trace the composition of accreted material without post-formation alteration
    Required to link abundances to formation models

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5986 in / 1493 out tokens · 16642 ms · 2026-06-26T11:57:29.378895+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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