pith. sign in

arxiv: 2606.23846 · v1 · pith:5CDUP5FEnew · submitted 2026-06-22 · 🌀 gr-qc · astro-ph.CO· hep-ph· hep-th

Primordial Black Holes: A Review of Formation and Evolution

S. Shankaranarayanan , Soumya Bhattacharya , Archit Vidyarthi This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-26 07:11 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌀 gr-qc astro-ph.COhep-phhep-th
keywords primordial black holesdark matterHawking evaporationmemory burden effectFLRW backgroundcompaction functiongravitational waveshigher curvature corrections
0
0 comments X

The pith

Dynamic FLRW backgrounds and quantum memory burden halt primordial black hole evaporation at Planck scale.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This review details how primordial black holes form from early-universe density fluctuations and the relativistic conditions required for collapse. It focuses on the compaction function as a tool to track the competition between gravity and pressure in the primordial plasma. The central claim is that standard Hawking evaporation does not apply once the dynamic FLRW metric, higher-curvature terms, and quantum backreaction (memory burden) are included. These effects together stop evaporation entirely in high-curvature regions. The result is stable Planck-mass relics that remain consistent with existing extragalactic limits and could contribute to dark matter.

Core claim

By incorporating the dynamic nature of FLRW backgrounds, higher curvature corrections, and quantum backreaction via the memory burden effect, we challenge the standard hawking evaporation and show that extreme-curvature environments halt evaporation entirely, leaving Planck-scale relics that evade current extragalactic bounds.

What carries the argument

The memory burden effect arising from quantum backreaction, which, together with higher-curvature corrections in a dynamic FLRW background, prevents complete evaporation of primordial black holes.

If this is right

  • Planck-scale relics remain viable as a dark matter component without conflicting with extragalactic bounds.
  • Sub-solar-mass primordial black hole binaries become detectable targets for next-generation gravitational-wave observatories.
  • Primordial black holes can serve as laboratories for high-energy physics and quantum-gravity effects.
  • The standard Hawking evaporation rate must be modified in the early-universe setting.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same backreaction mechanism may alter the late-time evolution of astrophysical black holes formed in strong-curvature environments.
  • Stable relics could leave distinct imprints on the cosmic microwave background or large-scale structure that differ from particle dark matter.
  • Multimessenger searches combining gravitational waves and gamma rays could distinguish relic black holes from other candidates.

Load-bearing premise

The memory burden effect from quantum backreaction combined with higher curvature corrections applies directly to PBH evaporation in the dynamic FLRW early-universe background and is sufficient to halt evaporation completely.

What would settle it

Detection of gamma-ray emission from evaporating primordial black holes at the expected Hawking temperature, or the absence of any stable Planck-mass relics in future cosmological surveys, would falsify the claim.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.23846 by Archit Vidyarthi, Soumya Bhattacharya, S. Shankaranarayanan.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: summarizes the current observational landscape for PBH dark matter across varying mass scales. The plot is a summary of exclusion limits spanning nearly twenty orders of magnitude in mass and serves a dual purpose: it identifies the narrow open windows where PBHs may con￾stitute the totality of DM (fPBH ≈ 1), while simultane￾ously demarcating the regimes where they are restricted to a sub-dominant fraction… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: FIG. 2. Illustration of the PBH formation in the rare over [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p004_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: FIG. 3. Space-time diagram of PBH formation during the RD epoch within the Hubble patch. Credit: Nanobanana [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p016_3.png] view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: FIG. 4. A schematic comparison of overdensity [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p021_4.png] view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: FIG. 5. The extreme exponential sensitivity of the primor [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p022_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: FIG. 6. Illustration of the separate universe approach (Repro [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p031_6.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Primordial Black Holes (PBHs) have emerged as a leading non-particulate candidate for dark matter and a unique cosmological probe, a paradigm shift accelerated by the detection of anomalous binary mergers by the LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA (LVK) collaboration. While the literature is rich with phenomenological constraints, the fundamental quantum and relativistic underpinnings governing PBH genesis and evolution often receive comparatively less emphasis. This review aims to bridge that gap by systematically detailing the physics of PBH formation and their subsequent evolutionary trajectory. We critically examine the hydrodynamic complexity of the early universe, establishing the relativistic thresholds for collapse, the non-linear race against sound in the primordial plasma, and the rigorous mathematical utility of the compaction function. Furthermore, by incorporating the dynamic nature of FLRW backgrounds, higher curvature corrections, and quantum backreaction via the memory burden effect, we challenge the standard hawking evaporation and show that extreme-curvature environments halt evaporation entirely, leaving Planck-scale relics that evade current extragalactic bounds. Finally, we map the multimessenger observational landscape, highlighting how the imminent search for sub-solar mass inspirals by next-generation gravitational wave observatories -- such as the Einstein Telescope and Cosmic Explorer -- could yield smoking-gun evidence for the PBH paradigm, ultimately transforming these primordial relics into unparalleled laboratories for high-energy physics.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 0 minor

Summary. This review examines PBH formation via relativistic collapse thresholds and the compaction function in the early universe's hydrodynamic environment, then addresses PBH evolution by incorporating FLRW dynamics, higher-curvature corrections, and quantum backreaction through the memory burden effect. The central claim is that these elements halt standard Hawking evaporation in extreme-curvature settings, producing stable Planck-scale relics that evade current extragalactic constraints; the paper concludes by outlining multimessenger prospects, especially sub-solar-mass inspirals detectable by Einstein Telescope and Cosmic Explorer.

Significance. If the halted-evaporation claim is substantiated, the work would be significant for reframing PBHs as viable dark-matter candidates and for linking quantum-gravity backreaction to observable cosmology. The review format usefully assembles formation physics with evolutionary implications, though its impact hinges on whether the memory-burden argument is merely cited or adapted to the PBH context.

major comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the assertion that 'extreme-curvature environments halt evaporation entirely' via the memory burden effect plus higher-curvature terms is the load-bearing claim that challenges standard Hawking evaporation, yet the manuscript provides no explicit derivation or adaptation of the memory-burden effect to the time-dependent FLRW metric, the compaction-function threshold, or the Planck-regime transition; the sufficiency is therefore asserted by reference rather than demonstrated internally.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their thorough review and valuable feedback on our manuscript. We address the major comment point by point below and outline the revisions we plan to make.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the assertion that 'extreme-curvature environments halt evaporation entirely' via the memory burden effect plus higher-curvature terms is the load-bearing claim that challenges standard Hawking evaporation, yet the manuscript provides no explicit derivation or adaptation of the memory-burden effect to the time-dependent FLRW metric, the compaction-function threshold, or the Planck-regime transition; the sufficiency is therefore asserted by reference rather than demonstrated internally.

    Authors: We appreciate the referee's observation. The manuscript is structured as a review paper, and the memory burden effect is a concept drawn from the quantum gravity literature (as cited in the relevant sections). Our presentation summarizes how this effect, combined with FLRW dynamics and curvature corrections, leads to halted evaporation for PBHs. We acknowledge that an explicit step-by-step adaptation within the text would enhance the manuscript's self-containment. Accordingly, we will revise the evolution section to include a concise outline of the memory burden mechanism adapted to the PBH context in FLRW spacetime, referencing the compaction function and Planck-scale transition. This addition will clarify the argument without altering the review format. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

Review synthesizes external literature without internal reductions or self-referential derivations

full rationale

This is a review paper whose central sections on PBH formation thresholds, compaction functions, and evolutionary trajectories summarize results from the broader gr-qc literature rather than presenting a new derivation chain. The claim that extreme-curvature environments halt evaporation via memory burden and higher-curvature corrections is asserted by reference to prior external work on quantum backreaction, not derived internally or reduced to any fitted parameter, self-citation chain, or definitional equivalence within the manuscript. No equations or steps are shown that rename known results, smuggle ansatze, or force predictions by construction from the paper's own inputs; the synthesis remains self-contained against external benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

As a review paper, the content rests on numerous established results from cosmology and quantum gravity literature rather than introducing new free parameters or entities; the abstract invokes standard FLRW cosmology and the compaction function as background tools.

axioms (2)
  • domain assumption FLRW metric describes the background spacetime for PBH formation
    Invoked when discussing dynamic FLRW backgrounds and relativistic thresholds for collapse.
  • domain assumption Compaction function provides rigorous threshold for gravitational collapse
    Cited as having rigorous mathematical utility for determining PBH formation conditions.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5780 in / 1237 out tokens · 34184 ms · 2026-06-26T07:11:20.407951+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

186 extracted references · 2 canonical work pages · 1 internal anchor

  1. [1]

    Fudge Factor

    The Excursion Set and the “Fudge Factor" In the literature, Eq. (71) is frequently multiplied by an empirical factor of 2 (e.g., Refs. [51, 145–147]). This factor originates from the direct application of the Press- Schechter formalism developed for DM halo formation. In standard structure formation, the “cloud-in-cloud" problem arises when small underden...

  2. [2]

    kinetic stiff- ness

    Physical Implication: Exponential Sensitivity Eq. (72) reveals why PBH formation is highly sensi- tive to the physics of the early universe. The abundance depends exponentially on the ratioδ c/σand two spe- cific events play a crucial role: First, during the QCD phase transition (t∼10 −5 s), the equation of state soft- ens (w <1/3), lowering the pressure ...

    2025

  3. [3]

    Substituting these into Eq

    Background Solution We first define a homogeneous and isotropic back- ground where the background density¯ρdepends only on time, and the velocity follows the Hubble flow: ¯ρ= ¯ρ(t),¯p= ¯p(t), ¯v=H(t)X.(B4) whereH(t)≡˙a/ais the Hubble parameter anda(t)is the scale factor. Substituting these into Eq. (B1), we get: ˙¯ρ+ ¯ρH(∇ ·X) =˙¯ρ+ 3H¯ρ= 0.(B5) This lead...

  4. [4]

    (B16) We substitute these into the fundamental equations and keep only first-order terms

    Linear Perturbations We introduce small perturbations: ρ= ¯ρ+δρ,v= ¯v+δv, ϕ= ¯ϕ+δϕ, p= ¯p+δp . (B16) We substitute these into the fundamental equations and keep only first-order terms. The continuity equation (B1) becomes ∂(¯ρ+δρ) ∂t +∇ ·[(¯ρ+δρ)( ¯v+δv)] = 0.(B17) Using∇ · ¯v= 3Hand subtracting the background equa- tion: ˙δρ+ 3Hδρ+ ¯v· ∇δρ+ ¯ρ∇ ·δv= 0.(B...

  5. [5]

    Separate Universe

    The Top-Hat Analytical Model A simple analytic estimate for the collapse threshold can be derived using the “Separate Universe" approach, discussed in detailed in Appendix (C). Consider a spher- ical overdensity (Top-Hat profile) evolving as a closed FLRWuniverse(K= +1)embeddedinaflatbackground (K= 0). The Friedmann equation for the overdense region (scal...

  6. [6]

    misalignment

    Physical Intuition: The Separate Universe Approach The mathematical validity of the gradient expansion rests on theSeparate Universe Assumption[135]. On super-horizon scales (k≪aH), spatial gradients are suppressed by the expansion parameterϵ. Physically, this means that causal physics (like pressure waves) can- not propagate between distant regions withi...

  7. [7]

    Separate Universe

    The Expansion Parameter The approximation relies on the smallness of spatial gradients compared to time derivatives. We define a 32 small parameterϵ: ϵ≡ RH L ∼ k aH ≪1.(C4) We expand the Einstein equations in powers ofϵ. •At zeroth order (ϵ0), the spatial gradients vanish. Each local patch of the universe evolves indepen- dently as a separate FLRW univers...

  8. [8]

    initial condition

    on super-horizon scales [136, 137]. This allows us to specifyζ(r)as a time-independent "initial condition" set by inflation. 3.Asymptotic Behavior:Asr→ ∞, we require ζ(r)→0, ensuring the metric asymptotically ap- proaches the background FLRW universe

  9. [9]

    potential

    Derivation of Density Contrast The relation between the curvature perturbationζand the density contrastδarises directly from the Einstein Field Equations, specifically the time-time component (the Hamiltonian Constraint). In the Arnowitt–Deser–Misner (ADM) formulation (or 3+1 decomposition of General Relativity), the Hamilto- nian constraint is given by t...

  10. [10]

    Bertone and D

    G. Bertone and D. Hooper, History of dark matter, Rev. Mod. Phys.90, 045002 (2018), arXiv:1605.04909 [astro- ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2018

  11. [11]

    Roszkowski, E

    L. Roszkowski, E. M. Sessolo, and S. Trojanowski, WIMP dark matter candidates and searches—current status and future prospects, Rept. Prog. Phys.81, 066201 (2018), arXiv:1707.06277 [hep-ph]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2018

  12. [12]

    Billardet al., Direct detection of dark mat- ter—APPEC committee report*, Rept

    J. Billardet al., Direct detection of dark mat- ter—APPEC committee report*, Rept. Prog. Phys.85, 056201 (2022), arXiv:2104.07634 [hep-ex]

    arXiv 2022

  13. [13]

    Kahn and T

    Y. Kahn and T. Lin, Searches for light dark matter us- ing condensed matter systems, Rept. Prog. Phys.85, 066901 (2022), arXiv:2108.03239 [hep-ph]

    arXiv 2022

  14. [14]

    Pérez de los Heros, Status, Challenges and Directions in Indirect Dark Matter Searches, Symmetry12, 1648 (2020), arXiv:2008.11561 [astro-ph.HE]

    C. Pérez de los Heros, Status, Challenges and Directions in Indirect Dark Matter Searches, Symmetry12, 1648 (2020), arXiv:2008.11561 [astro-ph.HE]

    arXiv 2020

  15. [15]

    Misiaszek and N

    M. Misiaszek and N. Rossi, Direct Detection of Dark Matter: A Critical Review, Symmetry16, 201 (2024), arXiv:2310.20472 [hep-ph]

    arXiv 2024

  16. [16]

    Y. B. Zel’dovich and I. D. Novikov, The Hypothesis of Cores Retarded during Expansion and the Hot Cosmo- logical Model, Sov. Astron.10, 602 (1967)

    1967

  17. [17]

    Hawking, Gravitationally collapsed objects of very low mass, Mon

    S. Hawking, Gravitationally collapsed objects of very low mass, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.152, 75 (1971)

    1971

  18. [18]

    B. J. Carr and S. W. Hawking, Black holes in the early Universe, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.168, 399 (1974)

    1974

  19. [19]

    B. J. Carr, The Primordial black hole mass spectrum, Astrophys. J.201, 1 (1975)

    1975

  20. [20]

    D. K. Nadezhin, I. D. Novikov, and A. G. Polnarev, The hydrodynamics of primordial black hole formation, Sov. Astronomy22, 129 (1978)

    1978

  21. [21]

    Carr and F

    B. Carr and F. Kuhnel, Primordial black holes as dark matter candidates, SciPost Phys. Lect. Notes48, 1 (2022), arXiv:2110.02821 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 2022

  22. [23]

    B. Carr, A. J. Iovino, G. Perna, V. Vaskonen, and H. Veermäe, Primordial black holes: constraints, poten- tial evidence and prospects, Riv. Nuovo Cim.49, 225 (2026), arXiv:2601.06024 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 2026

  23. [24]

    A. M. Green and B. J. Kavanagh, Primordial Black Holes as a dark matter candidate, J. Phys. G48, 043001 (2021), arXiv:2007.10722 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2021

  24. [25]

    Escrivà, F

    A. Escrivà, F. Kuhnel, and Y. Tada, Primordial Black Holes, Arxiv 10.1016/B978-0-32-395636-9.00012- 8 (2022), arXiv:2211.05767 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page doi:10.1016/b978-0-32-395636-9.00012- 2022

  25. [26]

    Musco, Threshold for primordial black holes: Depen- dence on the shape of the cosmological perturbations, Phys

    I. Musco, Threshold for primordial black holes: Depen- dence on the shape of the cosmological perturbations, Phys. Rev. D100, 123524 (2019), arXiv:1809.02127 [gr- qc]

    arXiv 2019

  26. [27]

    Escrivà, C

    A. Escrivà, C. Germani, and R. K. Sheth, Universal threshold for primordial black hole formation, Phys. Rev. D101, 044022 (2020), arXiv:1907.13311 [gr-qc]

    arXiv 2020

  27. [28]

    A. M. Green and A. R. Liddle, Constraints on the den- sity perturbation spectrum from primordial black holes, Phys. Rev. D56, 6166 (1997), arXiv:astro-ph/9704251

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 1997

  28. [29]

    Sasaki, T

    M. Sasaki, T. Suyama, T. Tanaka, and S. Yokoyama, Primordial black holes—perspectives in gravitational wave astronomy, Class. Quant. Grav.35, 063001 (2018), arXiv:1801.05235 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2018

  29. [30]

    C. T. Byrnes, M. Hindmarsh, S. Young, and M. R. S. Hawkins, Primordial black holes with an accurate QCD equation of state, JCAP08, 041, arXiv:1801.06138 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv

  30. [31]

    Young, I

    S. Young, I. Musco, and C. T. Byrnes, Primordial black hole formation and abundance: contribution from the non-linear relation between the density and curvature perturbation, JCAP11, 012, arXiv:1904.00984 [astro- ph.CO]

    arXiv 1904

  31. [32]

    Sasaki, T

    M. Sasaki, T. Suyama, T. Tanaka, and S. Yokoyama, Primordial Black Hole Scenario for the Gravitational- Wave Event GW150914, Phys. Rev. Lett.117, 061101 (2016), [Erratum: Phys.Rev.Lett. 121, 059901 (2018)], arXiv:1603.08338 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2016

  32. [33]

    S. Bird, I. Cholis, J. B. Muñoz, Y. Ali-Haïmoud, M. Kamionkowski, E. D. Kovetz, A. Raccanelli, and A. G. Riess, Did LIGO detect dark matter?, Phys. 36 Rev. Lett.116, 201301 (2016), arXiv:1603.00464 [astro- ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2016

  33. [34]

    Clesse and J

    S. Clesse and J. García-Bellido, The clustering of mas- sive Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter: measur- ing their mass distribution with Advanced LIGO, Phys. Dark Univ.15, 142 (2017), arXiv:1603.05234 [astro- ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2017

  34. [35]

    B. P. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), Obser- vation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger, Phys. Rev. Lett.116, 061102 (2016), arXiv:1602.03837 [gr-qc]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2016

  35. [36]

    Fernandez and S

    N. Fernandez and S. Profumo, Unraveling the origin of black holes from effective spin measurements with LIGO-Virgo, JCAP08, 022, arXiv:1905.13019 [astro- ph.HE]

    arXiv 1905

  36. [37]

    Franciolini, V

    G. Franciolini, V. Baibhav, V. De Luca, K. K. Y. Ng, K. W. K. Wong, E. Berti, P. Pani, A. Riotto, and S. Vitale, Searching for a subpopulation of primor- dial black holes in LIGO-Virgo gravitational-wave data, Phys. Rev. D105, 083526 (2022), arXiv:2105.03349 [gr- qc]

    arXiv 2022

  37. [38]

    S. S. Bavera, T. Fragos, Y. Qin, E. Zapartas, C. J. Neijs- sel, I. Mandel, A. Batta, S. M. Gaebel, C. Kimball, and S. Stevenson, The origin of spin in binary black holes: Predicting the distributions of the main observables of Advanced LIGO, Astron. Astrophys.635, A97 (2020), arXiv:1906.12257 [astro-ph.HE]

    arXiv 2020

  38. [39]

    Gerosa and M

    D. Gerosa and M. Fishbach, Hierarchical mergers of stellar-massblackholesandtheirgravitational-wavesig- natures,NatureAstron.5,749(2021),arXiv:2105.03439 [astro-ph.HE]

    arXiv 2021

  39. [40]

    Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), GW190814: Gravitational Waves from the Coalescence of a 23 Solar Mass Black Hole with a 2.6 Solar Mass Compact Object, Astrophys

    R. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), GW190814: Gravitational Waves from the Coalescence of a 23 Solar Mass Black Hole with a 2.6 Solar Mass Compact Object, Astrophys. J. Lett.896, L44 (2020), arXiv:2006.12611 [astro-ph.HE]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2020

  40. [41]

    Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), Properties and Astrophysical Implications of the 150 M⊙ Binary Black Hole Merger GW190521, Astrophys

    R. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), Properties and Astrophysical Implications of the 150 M⊙ Binary Black Hole Merger GW190521, Astrophys. J. Lett.900, L13 (2020), arXiv:2009.01190 [astro-ph.HE]

    arXiv 2020

  41. [42]

    A. G. Abacet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo, KAGRA), GW250114: Testing Hawking’s Area Law and the Kerr Nature of Black Holes, Phys. Rev. Lett.135, 111403 (2025), arXiv:2509.08054 [gr-qc]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2025

  42. [43]

    Stevenson, A

    S. Stevenson, A. Vigna-Gómez, I. Mandel, J. W. Bar- rett, C. J. Neijssel, D. Perkins, and S. E. de Mink, For- mation of the first three gravitational-wave observations through isolated binary evolution, Nature Commun.8, 14906 (2017), arXiv:1704.01352 [astro-ph.HE]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2017

  43. [44]

    Niikuraet al., Microlensing constraints on primordial black holes with Subaru/HSC Andromeda observations, Nature Astron.3, 524 (2019), arXiv:1701.02151 [astro- ph.CO]

    H. Niikuraet al., Microlensing constraints on primordial black holes with Subaru/HSC Andromeda observations, Nature Astron.3, 524 (2019), arXiv:1701.02151 [astro- ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2019

  44. [45]

    Tisserandet al.(EROS-2), Limits on the Macho Con- tent oftheGalactic HalofromtheEROS-2Surveyofthe Magellanic Clouds, Astron

    P. Tisserandet al.(EROS-2), Limits on the Macho Con- tent oftheGalactic HalofromtheEROS-2Surveyofthe Magellanic Clouds, Astron. Astrophys.469, 387 (2007), arXiv:astro-ph/0607207

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2007

  45. [46]

    R. A. Allsmanet al.(Macho), MACHO project limits on black hole dark matter in the 1-30 solar mass range, Astrophys. J. Lett.550, L169 (2001), arXiv:astro- ph/0011506

    arXiv 2001

  46. [47]

    A. Katz, J. Kopp, S. Sibiryakov, and W. Xue, Fem- tolensing by Dark Matter Revisited, JCAP12, 005, arXiv:1807.11495 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv

  47. [48]

    Smyth, S

    N. Smyth, S. Profumo, S. English, T. Jeltema, K. McK- innon, and P. Guhathakurta, Updated Constraints on Asteroid-Mass Primordial Black Holes as Dark Mat- ter, Phys. Rev. D101, 063005 (2020), arXiv:1910.01285 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 2020

  48. [49]

    Ali-Haïmoud and M

    Y. Ali-Haïmoud and M. Kamionkowski, Cosmic mi- crowave background limits on accreting primordial black holes, Phys. Rev. D95, 043534 (2017), arXiv:1612.05644 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2017

  49. [50]

    B. P. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, Virgo), Search for Subsolar Mass Ultracompact Binaries in Advanced LIGO’s Second Observing Run, Phys. Rev. Lett.123, 161102 (2019), arXiv:1904.08976 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 2019

  50. [51]

    B. Carr, K. Kohri, Y. Sendouda, and J. Yokoyama, Con- straints on primordial black holes, Rept. Prog. Phys.84, 116902 (2021), arXiv:2002.12778 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2021

  51. [52]

    Tinyakov, Primordial black holes (Springer, 2025) Chap

    P. Tinyakov, Primordial black holes (Springer, 2025) Chap. The Asteroid Mass Window, arXiv:2406.03114 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 2025

  52. [53]

    S. Wang, T. Terada, and K. Kohri, Prospective con- straints on the primordial black hole abundance from thestochasticgravitational-wavebackgroundsproduced by coalescing events and curvature perturbations, Phys. Rev. D99, 103531 (2019), [Erratum: Phys.Rev.D 101, 069901 (2020)], arXiv:1903.05924 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 2019

  53. [54]

    Afzalet al.(NANOGrav), The NANOGrav 15 yr Data Set: Search for Signals from New Physics, As- trophys

    A. Afzalet al.(NANOGrav), The NANOGrav 15 yr Data Set: Search for Signals from New Physics, As- trophys. J. Lett.951, L11 (2023), [Erratum: Astro- phys.J.Lett. 971, L27 (2024), Erratum: Astrophys.J. 971, L27 (2024)], arXiv:2306.16219 [astro-ph.HE]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2023

  54. [55]

    M. G. Santos, S. Camera, Z. Chen, S. Cunnington, and J. Fonseca, Cosmology with ESO-SKAO Synergies (2025) arXiv:2503.03915 [astro-ph.IM]

    arXiv 2025

  55. [56]

    Dandoy, V

    V. Dandoy, V. Domcke, and F. Rompineve, Search for scalar induced gravitational waves in the interna- tional pulsar timing array data release 2 and NANOgrav 12.5 years datasets, SciPost Phys. Core6, 060 (2023), arXiv:2302.07901 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 2023

  56. [57]

    Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, VIRGO, KAGRA), Search for Subsolar-Mass Binaries in the First Half of Advanced LIGO’s and Advanced Virgo’s Third Ob- serving Run, Phys

    R. Abbottet al.(LIGO Scientific, VIRGO, KAGRA), Search for Subsolar-Mass Binaries in the First Half of Advanced LIGO’s and Advanced Virgo’s Third Ob- serving Run, Phys. Rev. Lett.129, 061104 (2022), arXiv:2109.12197 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 2022

  57. [58]

    Aggarwalet al., Challenges and opportunities of gravitational-wave searches above 10 kHz, Living Rev

    N. Aggarwalet al., Challenges and opportunities of gravitational-wave searches above 10 kHz, Living Rev. Rel.28, 10 (2025), arXiv:2501.11723 [gr-qc]

    arXiv 2025

  58. [59]

    A. D. Gow, C. T. Byrnes, P. S. Cole, and S. Young, Thepowerspectrumonsmallscales: Robustconstraints and comparing PBH methodologies, JCAP02, 002, arXiv:2008.03289 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 2008

  59. [60]

    Garcia-Bellido and E

    J. Garcia-Bellido and E. Ruiz Morales, Primordial black holes from single field models of inflation, Phys. Dark 37 Univ.18, 47 (2017), arXiv:1702.03901 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2017

  60. [61]

    Motohashi and W

    H. Motohashi and W. Hu, Primordial Black Holes and Slow-Roll Violation, Phys. Rev. D96, 063503 (2017), arXiv:1706.06784 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2017

  61. [62]

    Inomata, M

    K. Inomata, M. Kawasaki, K. Mukaida, Y. Tada, and T. T. Yanagida, Inflationary primordial black holes for the LIGO gravitational wave events and pulsar timing array experiments, Phys. Rev. D95, 123510 (2017), arXiv:1611.06130 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2017

  62. [63]

    Garcia-Bellido, M

    J. Garcia-Bellido, M. Peloso, and C. Unal, Gravita- tional Wave signatures of inflationary models from Primordial Black Hole Dark Matter, JCAP09, 013, arXiv:1707.02441 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv

  63. [64]

    Domènech, Scalar Induced Gravitational Waves Re- view, Universe7, 398 (2021), arXiv:2109.01398 [gr-qc]

    G. Domènech, Scalar Induced Gravitational Waves Re- view, Universe7, 398 (2021), arXiv:2109.01398 [gr-qc]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2021

  64. [65]

    Musco, J

    I. Musco, J. C. Miller, and L. Rezzolla, Computations of primordial black hole formation, Class. Quant. Grav. 22, 1405 (2005), arXiv:gr-qc/0412063

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2005

  65. [66]

    B. J. Carr, K. Kohri, Y. Sendouda, and J. Yokoyama, New cosmological constraints on primordial black holes, Phys. Rev. D81, 104019 (2010), arXiv:0912.5297 [astro- ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2010

  66. [67]

    Kushwaha and T

    A. Kushwaha and T. Suyama, Revisiting Constraints on Primordial Curvature Power Spectrum from PBH Abundances, arXiv (2026), arXiv:2603.23025 [astro- ph.CO]

    arXiv 2026

  67. [68]

    Sato-Polito, E

    G. Sato-Polito, E. D. Kovetz, and M. Kamionkowski, Constraints on the primordial curvature power spec- trum from primordial black holes, Phys. Rev. D100, 063521 (2019), arXiv:1904.10971 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 2019

  68. [69]

    Kalaja, N

    A. Kalaja, N. Bellomo, N. Bartolo, D. Bertacca, S. Matarrese, I. Musco, A. Raccanelli, and L. Verde, From Primordial Black Holes Abundance to Primordial Curvature Power Spectrum (and back), JCAP10, 031, arXiv:1908.03596 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv 1908

  69. [70]

    Kushwaha and T

    A. Kushwaha and T. Suyama, Constraining small-scale primordial magnetic fields from the abundance of pri- mordial black holes, JCAP12, 012, arXiv:2405.19693 [astro-ph.CO]

    arXiv

  70. [71]

    M. Y. Khlopov and A. G. Polnarev, PRIMORDIAL BLACK HOLES AS A COSMOLOGICAL TEST OF GRAND UNIFICATION, Phys. Lett. B97, 383 (1980)

    1980

  71. [72]

    Harada, C.-M

    T. Harada, C.-M. Yoo, K. Kohri, K.-i. Nakao, and S. Jhingan, Primordial black hole formation in the matter-dominated phase of the Universe, Astrophys. J. 833, 61 (2016), arXiv:1609.01588 [astro-ph.CO]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2016

  72. [73]

    Dvali, A Microscopic Model of Holography: Survival by the Burden of Memory, Fortsch

    G. Dvali, A Microscopic Model of Holography: Survival by the Burden of Memory, Fortsch. Phys.69, 2000091 (2021),foundationaltheoreticalframeworkforthemem- ory burden effect., arXiv:1810.02336 [hep-th]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2021

  73. [74]

    G.Dvali, O.Kaikov,andJ.S.V.Bermúdez,Howspecial are black holes? Correspondence with objects saturat- ing unitarity bounds in generic theories, Phys. Rev. D 105, 056013 (2022), arXiv:2112.00551 [hep-th]

    arXiv 2022

  74. [75]

    R. M. Wald,General Relativity(Chicago Univ. Pr., Chicago, USA, 1984)

    1984

  75. [76]

    Shankaranarayanan and J

    S. Shankaranarayanan and J. P. Johnson, Modified the- ories of gravity: Why, how and what?, Gen. Rel. Grav. 54, 44 (2022), arXiv:2204.06533 [gr-qc]

    arXiv 2022

  76. [77]

    Mandal and S

    S. Mandal and S. Shankaranarayanan, Modified theories of gravity at different curvature scales, arXiv (2025), 2502.07437 [gr-qc]

    arXiv 2025

  77. [78]

    Calmet, B

    X. Calmet, B. Carr, and E. Winstanley,Quantum Black Holes,SpringerBriefsinPhysics(Springer,Berlin, 2014)

    2014

  78. [79]

    Mandal, T

    S. Mandal, T. Parvez, and S. Shankaranarayanan, From the Horndeski action to the Callan-Giddings-Harvey- Strominger model and beyond, Phys. Rev. D109, L041502 (2024), arXiv:2311.07921 [gr-qc]

    arXiv 2024

  79. [80]

    Parvez and S

    T. Parvez and S. Shankaranarayanan, Exact, non- singular black holes from a phantom DBI Field as pri- mordial dark matter, arXiv (2025), 2511.14047 [gr-qc]

    Pith/arXiv arXiv 2025

  80. [81]

    Xavier, A

    S. Xavier, A. Sunny, and S. Shankaranarayanan, Exact model for evaporating primordial black holes in a cos- mological spacetime, Phys. Rev. D105, 104038 (2022), arXiv:2110.14379 [gr-qc]

    arXiv 2022

Showing first 80 references.