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arxiv: 2605.19658 · v1 · pith:B6VKT6RBnew · submitted 2026-05-19 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

The PARADIGM Project II: Characterising Nuclear and Diffuse Radio Components in Local U/LIRGs

Geferson Lucatelli , Rob Beswick , Javier Mold\'on , Antxon Alberdi , Miguel \'A. P\'erez-Torres , Santiago del Palacio , Kelvin Wandia , Susanne Aalto
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L. Barcos-Mu\~noz D. Williams-Baldwin J. E. Conway Cristina Romero-Ca\~nizales Eskil Varenius Hans-Rainer Kl\"ockner Simon T. Garrington Willem A. Baan Ylva M. Pihlstrom
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Pith reviewed 2026-05-20 03:58 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords U/LIRGsradio interferometrynuclear emissiondiffuse emissionAGNstar formationgalaxy mergersq_IR
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The pith

In local U/LIRGs, radio-excess sources show lower nuclear luminosity ratios at 33 GHz over 6 GHz, indicating AGN non-thermal emission rather than enhanced star formation.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper presents a method to separate compact nuclear radio components from large-scale diffuse emission in 15 nearby ultra-luminous and luminous infrared galaxies using multi-resolution observations. Nuclear emission accounts for roughly half the total radio output on average, while diffuse emission related to star formation supplies most of the overall power. The central finding is that galaxies with radio excess relative to their infrared luminosity exhibit a clear deficit of high-frequency nuclear emission. Because 33 GHz is interpreted as a tracer of recent star formation, this deficit implies the excess radio power originates from non-thermal processes at lower frequencies, most likely tied to AGN activity.

Core claim

Using e-MERLIN and VLA observations at 1.4, 6.0, and 33.0 GHz, the study decomposes radio emission in local U/LIRGs into nuclear (compact cores and nuclear extended) and large-scale (total and diffuse) components. Sources with radio excess, indicated by lower q_IR values, display reduced nuclear luminosity ratios L_R,33^N / L_R,6^N. Since 33.0 GHz traces recent star formation, the deficit of high-frequency nuclear emission suggests that the radio excess is dominated by non-thermal emission at lower frequencies, likely AGN-related, rather than by boosted star formation.

What carries the argument

Multi-frequency radio interferometry decomposition of emission into nuclear compact cores, nuclear extended structures, and large-scale diffuse components across scales from tens of parsecs to kiloparsecs.

If this is right

  • Nuclear emission components correlate with total radio and infrared luminosities that increase with merger stage.
  • Diffuse emission at larger scales shows no clear dependence on nuclear processes.
  • Nuclear emission contributes about 50 percent of total radio emission on average.
  • Total multiscale diffuse emission contributes about 80 percent to total radio power.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • This decomposition approach could be applied to higher-redshift merging systems to track how AGN and star formation contributions evolve with cosmic time.
  • The results imply that radio excess in mergers is more often a signature of black-hole accretion than of intense nuclear starbursts, which would revise estimates of AGN duty cycles in gas-rich interactions.
  • Higher-sensitivity 33 GHz imaging could test whether any hidden star formation is masked by the observed frequency deficit.

Load-bearing premise

That 33 GHz emission primarily traces recent star formation with little AGN contribution at that frequency.

What would settle it

If independent star-formation rate estimates from infrared or other tracers predict higher 33 GHz nuclear luminosities than observed in the radio-excess subsample, the AGN interpretation would be supported; the opposite match would weaken it.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.19658 by Antxon Alberdi, Cristina Romero-Ca\~nizales, D. Williams-Baldwin, Eskil Varenius, Geferson Lucatelli, Hans-Rainer Kl\"ockner, Javier Mold\'on, J. E. Conway, Kelvin Wandia, L. Barcos-Mu\~noz, Miguel \'A. P\'erez-Torres, Rob Beswick, Santiago del Palacio, Simon T. Garrington, Susanne Aalto, Willem A. Baan, Ylva M. Pihlstrom.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Multi-frequency MFS radio maps of Mrk 331, at 1.5, 6.0 and 33.0 GHz on scales ≳ 0.3 ′′. The top row shows the native images, while the bottom row shows the uv beam matched images with a common restoring beam of 0.8 ′′ . Notes: In the scale of these maps, 2.0 ′′ corresponds to 760 pc. We show the contour levels in the radio maps and on the colour bar at the right side of each panel. We auto-generate these l… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Multi-frequency MFS radio maps of Mrk 331, at 1.4, 6.0 and 33.0 GHz at scales ≲ 0.3 ′′. The top row shows the native images, while the bottom row shows the uv beam matched images with a common restoring beam of 0.08′′ . Notes: Same as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Scheme (not to scale) to represent the multiscale decomposition of radio emission in U/LIRGs, showing the hierarchical structure from large-scale diffuse emission S D ν to nuclear components S N ν . The idealisation of a nuclear region contains both compact core S cc ν and nuclear extended emission S ne ν . Note that, in principle, S N ν can be recovered by both low￾and high-angular resolution imaging, sin… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Relations between the radio luminosities of compact cores, L cc R , and nuclear extended regions, L ne R , at linear physical scales of ≲ 250 pc. We use symbolised crosses, open squares, and open circles to indicate the luminosities calculated at 1.4, 6.0 and 33.0 GHz, respectively. Given the close one-to-one correlation (as indicated by the dashed line), we see the interplay between the emission between A… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Relationship between the radio luminosities of nuclear regions, L N R , at linear physical scales of ≲ 250 pc with the luminosities of the diffuse emission L D R , at linear physical scales of ≳ 250 pc. Upper: We show the 6.0 GHz radio luminosities (LR,6), distinguishing the points by the radio class taken from the LIRGI sample. Lower: Same as the left panel, but we differentiate the luminosities calculate… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Connection between the nuclear extended emission fraction ξ ne T and the large-scale sizes R T R , both at 6.0 GHz. This result indicates that an increased flux density contribution from nuclear extended emission (nuclear SB — S ne ν ) links to smaller global sizes of the sources. Notes: Size and opacity of the data points increases with the luminosity distance DL to the systems (see [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figu… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Fraction of nuclear extended emission to compact-core emission (ξ ne cc = S ne ν /Scc ν ), at linear scales of ≲ 250 pc, compared with the total radio luminosity L T R at linear scales of ≳ 250 pc, at the three central frequencies of 1.4, 6.0 and 33.0 GHz. We observe a lack of correlation for the energy balance of SBs and AGNs and its impact with the total radio power. Al￾though, a tentative interpretation… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Compact-core fraction (Υcc T ) at 6.0 GHz, compared with the merger stages taken from Stierwalt et al. (2013) (compiled in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Relation between the SB luminosity surface density Σ ne L and the brightness temperature of the compact-core emission T cc b at 6.0 GHz. Sim￾ilarly as in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Fraction of nuclear flux density ΥN T compared with the total source sizes R T 95 and with the 6.0 GHz radio luminosity of diffuse struc￾tures L D R . Left: Relationship between ΥN T and R T 95 highlighing a tentative correlation between the two quantities, indicating that a higher fraction of nuclear emission relates to smaller the total source sizes. Right: We note that for our sources, L D R is quite i… view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Infrared-radio correlation, between the total radio luminosity in the range 1.0–35.0 and the total host-galaxy infrared luminosity L gal IR taken from Shangguan et al. (2019). Note that both quantities are global￾integrated, summed over for systems with two or more galaxies. Different source classes exhibit characteristic qIR values. Star￾forming galaxies typically show qIR ≈ 2.3–3.0 (Molnár et al. 2021),… view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Diagnostics of the radio spectral properties and their connection to the radio-infrared balance. Upper: Radio-infrared parameter qIR com￾pared with the nuclear luminosity ratio L N R,33/LN R,6 , showing that sources with lower spectral ratios tend to exhibit radio excess (lower qIR). Lower: Nuclear luminosity surface density Σ N L compared with the ratio of LR,33/LR,6 at nuclear and total scales, probing … view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Disentangling SF and AGN emission is essential for understanding galaxy evolution, yet remains challenging in merging systems where both processes are enhanced and spatially intertwined. Galaxy mergers drive gas inflows that simultaneously fuel nuclear SBs and BH accretion, shaping morphology from nuclear ($\lesssim 250$~pc) to large-scale ($\gtrsim 500$~pc) regions. Radio interferometry provides an unobscured view, but separating compact nuclear SBs, AGN, and diffuse SF requires multiscale, multi-frequency observations. We present a systematic method to characterise multiscale radio properties in 15 local ($z\lesssim 0.1$) U/LIRGs ($L_{\mathrm{IR}} > 10^{11}\mathrm{L}_{\odot}$). Using \emph{e}-MERLIN and VLA at 1.4, 6.0 and 33.0~GHz, we probe physical scales from $\sim 10$--$250$~pc to $\sim 0.5$--$3.0$~kpc. We decompose radio emission into nuclear (compact cores and nuclear extended) and large-scale (total and diffuse) components, comparing morphological properties (emission fractions, sizes, luminosities, surface densities) and investigating correlations with source classes, merger stages, and $L_{\mathrm{IR}}$. We find: i) nuclear emission contributes $\sim$50\% of total radio emission on average; ii) total multiscale diffuse emission (SF-related) contributes $\sim$80\% to total power; iii) nuclear emission components act together to correlate with total radio and infrared luminosities, which increase with merger stage, whilst diffuse emission at larger scales shows no clear dependence on nuclear processes; iv) sources with radio excess (lower $q_{\mathrm{IR}}$) show lower nuclear luminosity ratios $L_{\mathrm{R,33}}^{\mathrm{N}}/L_{\mathrm{R,6}}^{\mathrm{N}}$, indicating a deficit of high-$\nu$ radio emission; since 33.0~GHz traces recent SF, this suggests the radio excess is dominated by non-thermal emission at lower $\nu$, likely AGN-related, rather than enhanced SF.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents results from the PARADIGM Project II on 15 local (z ≲ 0.1) U/LIRGs observed with e-MERLIN and VLA at 1.4, 6.0, and 33.0 GHz. It describes a systematic decomposition of radio emission into nuclear (compact cores + nuclear extended, ≲250 pc) and large-scale diffuse (≳500 pc) components, reporting that nuclear emission contributes ~50% of total radio power on average while diffuse emission contributes ~80%. The authors find correlations of nuclear components with total radio/IR luminosities and merger stage, but no such dependence for diffuse emission, and that radio-excess sources (lower q_IR) exhibit lower nuclear luminosity ratios L_R,33^N / L_R,6^N, which they interpret as evidence that the radio excess is dominated by non-thermal AGN emission at lower frequencies rather than enhanced star formation.

Significance. If the decomposition and interpretation are robust, the work provides a useful multi-scale framework for separating SF and AGN radio contributions in merging systems, with direct relevance to galaxy evolution studies. The multi-frequency approach across ~10 pc to kpc scales and the sample of 15 objects allow statistical statements about component fractions and merger-stage trends. The specific finding on luminosity ratios in radio-excess sources could serve as a diagnostic if the assumption that 33 GHz traces recent SF holds. The systematic method and direct observational comparisons are strengths.

major comments (1)
  1. [Abstract / results on nuclear luminosity ratios] Abstract, finding (iv) and associated results section: The central interpretation that lower nuclear L_R,33^N / L_R,6^N ratios in low-q_IR sources indicate AGN dominance (rather than enhanced SF) rests on the assumption that 33 GHz nuclear emission is dominated by free-free from recent star formation after decomposition. The multi-frequency decomposition does not include explicit spectral-index modeling or higher-frequency constraints to isolate possible non-thermal AGN contributions (flat-spectrum cores, synchrotron self-absorption, or dust-related free-free) at nuclear scales. This leaves open the possibility that the observed ratio reflects spectral curvature or resolution-dependent flux recovery instead of a true SF deficit, which is load-bearing for the claim about the origin of radio excess.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Methods / notation] The notation for nuclear luminosities (L_R,33^N, L_R,6^N) should be explicitly defined in the methods or early results section to avoid ambiguity when comparing components.
  2. [Results / tables] A brief summary table of the 15 sources, including basic properties, merger stage, q_IR, and the measured component fractions/luminosity ratios, would improve traceability of the reported averages and correlations.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their careful and constructive review of our manuscript. We address the major comment below and have revised the manuscript accordingly to strengthen the supporting analysis and clarify the assumptions underlying our interpretation.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: Abstract, finding (iv) and associated results section: The central interpretation that lower nuclear L_R,33^N / L_R,6^N ratios in low-q_IR sources indicate AGN dominance (rather than enhanced SF) rests on the assumption that 33 GHz nuclear emission is dominated by free-free from recent star formation after decomposition. The multi-frequency decomposition does not include explicit spectral-index modeling or higher-frequency constraints to isolate possible non-thermal AGN contributions (flat-spectrum cores, synchrotron self-absorption, or dust-related free-free) at nuclear scales. This leaves open the possibility that the observed ratio reflects spectral curvature or resolution-dependent flux recovery instead of a true SF deficit, which is load-bearing for the claim about the origin of radio excess.

    Authors: We agree that the interpretation of lower nuclear luminosity ratios in radio-excess sources as evidence for AGN-related non-thermal emission at lower frequencies relies on 33 GHz primarily tracing free-free emission from recent star formation in the decomposed nuclear components. This assumption is grounded in the established use of 33 GHz as an SF tracer in the literature for U/LIRGs, where free-free emission increasingly dominates above ~10 GHz once compact non-thermal sources are isolated. However, to directly address the concern regarding the lack of explicit spectral-index modeling, we have added a new analysis in the revised results section computing spectral indices between the 6 GHz and 33 GHz nuclear luminosities for each source. This shows that radio-excess objects (low q_IR) exhibit steeper nuclear spectra, consistent with a relative deficit of high-frequency emission rather than enhanced SF. We have also expanded the discussion to explicitly consider possible non-thermal AGN contributions, synchrotron self-absorption, and resolution effects at nuclear scales, while acknowledging the absence of higher-frequency (>33 GHz) data as a limitation. The abstract has been revised to qualify the statement. These changes make the claim more robust without altering the core findings. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity in observational analysis

full rationale

This is an observational astronomy paper that reports direct measurements and correlations from multi-frequency radio interferometry data on 15 local U/LIRGs. The central findings (nuclear emission fractions, luminosity ratios, and trends with merger stage or q_IR) are empirical results obtained by decomposing observed flux into nuclear compact, nuclear extended, and diffuse components at 1.4/6/33 GHz. No equations, predictions, or first-principles derivations are presented that reduce to fitted parameters or self-referential definitions. The interpretation linking lower L_R,33^N / L_R,6^N to AGN-related non-thermal emission rests on the external standard assumption that 33 GHz traces free-free emission from recent star formation, which is not constructed or defined within the paper itself. No self-citation load-bearing steps, uniqueness theorems, or ansatzes are invoked to force the results. The analysis is self-contained against external benchmarks and contains independent content from the data.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

Central claims depend on the validity of frequency-based process tracing and the accuracy of the nuclear-versus-diffuse decomposition; no free parameters or new entities are introduced in the abstract.

axioms (1)
  • domain assumption 33 GHz radio emission traces recent star formation
    Invoked to interpret lower nuclear luminosity ratios as evidence for AGN rather than enhanced SF in radio-excess sources.

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