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Globular cluster formation from inertial inflows: accreting extremely massive stars as the origin of abundance anomalies

T0 review · 4 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-10 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read The paper argues that globular clusters' light-element abundance anomalies are produced by winds from accreting extremely massive stars of roughly 10^3–10^4 solar masses that form naturally through inertial inflows during cluster formation.

desk verdict A plausible, honestly self-assessed aEMS model for GC abundance anomalies that lives or dies by the assumption that accreting ~10^3-10^4 Msun stars are fully mixed; worth serious review but conclusions should be treated as conditional. read the letter →

arxiv 2501.12138 v3 pith:TRSL3BTB submitted 2025-01-21 astro-ph.GA astro-ph.SR

Mark Gieles (ICREA , Barcelona) , Paolo Padoan (Barcelona , Dartmouth) , Corinne Charbonnel (Geneva) , Jorick S. Vink (Armagh) , Laura Ramírez-Galeano (Geneva) This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.GAastro-ph.SR
keywords globularclustersmultiplepopulationsextremelymassivestarsinertial-inflowstarformationabundanceanomaliesstellarwindshot-hydrogenburningintermediate-massblackholes
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

The paper tries to establish that the long-unexplained abundance anomalies in globular clusters are a natural by-product of how massive clusters form. In the inertial-inflow model of star formation, the most massive star in a cloud is about 0.25 per cent of the cloud mass, so proto-globular clouds of a few million solar masses should contain accreting extremely massive stars of $10^{3}$–$10^{4}$ solar masses. These stars blow strong winds of hot-hydrogen burning products while still accreting pristine gas, and low-mass stars form continuously from the diluted mixture. The model quantitatively reproduces the observed helium spreads, the fraction of polluted stars, and the mass and metallicity dependence of the Mg-Al anticorrelations, and it identifies a characteristic gas surface density of about 1.5×$10^{3}$ solar masses per square parsec for globular cluster formation.

What carries the argument

The load-bearing object is the inertial-inflow scaling $m_{\mathrm{f,max}} = \epsilon M_g$, where $\epsilon \simeq 2.5\times10^{-3}$ relates the most massive star in a cloud to the cloud mass, so that proto-globular clusters of $\sim10^{5-7}\,M_\odot$ inevitably host accreting extremely massive stars. The second essential mechanism is the balance between accretion and wind mass loss, $m_\infty = 100\,M_\odot\,\sqrt{\dot m_{\rm acc}/\dot m_{\rm wind,100}(Z)}$, which sets the effective maximum stellar mass and makes it depend on both cluster mass and metallicity. The model then follows the growth of the stellar mass function during the 1–2 Myr formation time, using the assumption that accreting EMSs are fully convective, so their winds carry the interior abundances, and a dilution model in which wind material mixes with pristine gas to form low-mass stars.

What would settle it

Compute a stellar-structure model of an accreting 3,000-solar-mass star at 0.1 solar metallicity with a treatment of superadiabatic convection that keeps the envelope radiative; if the wind leaves the surface with unprocessed abundances, the pollution mechanism cannot produce the observed globular cluster patterns.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The central claim is that the light-element abundance anomalies of globular clusters are produced during cluster formation by accreting extremely massive stars (EMSs), objects with final masses near $10^{3}$–$10^{4}$ solar masses. In the inertial-inflow model of star formation, the maximum stellar mass is a fixed fraction of the parent cloud mass, $m_{\mathrm{f,max}} = \epsilon M_g$ with $\epsilon \simeq 2.5\times10^{-3}$, so clouds of a few $10^6$ solar masses naturally form EMSs. Because these stars are expected to be fully convective while accreting, their strong winds release hot-hydrogen burning products at the same composition as their interiors; this polluted gas dilutes with pristine gas and forms the low-mass stars we see today. The paper shows that a parameterised model of this process reproduces the observed helium spreads, the fraction of polluted stars, and the mass and metallicity dependence of the O-Na and Mg-Al anticorrelations, and it concludes that globular clusters formed from gas with surface density $\Sigma_g \gtrsim 10^3\,M_\odot\,\mathrm{pc}^{-2}$.

Load-bearing premise

The argument collapses if accreting stars of a few thousand solar masses are not fully mixed, because then their winds carry pristine surface composition instead of hot-hydrogen burning products; current stellar models disagree on whether such stars become fully convective.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • If globular clusters formed from gas at $\Sigma_g \gtrsim 10^3\,M_\odot\,\mathrm{pc}^{-2}$, the same model predicts that the helium spread and the fraction of polluted stars rise with initial cluster mass roughly as observed, making the surface density of the birth gas a measurable parameter.
  • Massive, metal-poor globular clusters should show the largest aluminium enhancement and deepest magnesium depletion, while low-mass or metal-rich clusters should have only mild sodium-oxygen spreads, providing a sharp ranking test across the whole globular cluster population.
  • Pollution happens during cluster formation, so young massive clusters formed from dense, low-metallicity gas in the local Universe should show nitrogen and sodium enhancements, contrary to the assumption that multiple populations require high redshift.
  • The most massive EMSs leave black holes above the pair-instability gap, with tens of such objects predicted in clusters like M15; gravitational-wave detectors should see mergers of these intermediate-mass black holes at redshifts above roughly 3.
  • Because there is no separate first and second generation of stars, low-mass stars that form early and late share the same stellar mass function, matching the observed similarity of the two populations' mass functions.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the $m_{\mathrm{f,max}} = \epsilon M_g$ scaling is universal, it should be visible in resolved young massive clusters: the most massive star in a $10^4\,M_\odot$ cluster should cap near 250 solar masses, and in a $10^5\,M_\odot$ cluster near 2500 solar masses, a test JWST or the next generation of 30-metre-class telescopes could attempt in lensed clusters.
  • The model implicitly predicts that the absence of multiple populations in local young clusters is an environmental selection effect rather than an epoch effect; searching for nitrogen-rich and sodium-rich turnoff stars in the most massive dense clusters of low-metallicity dwarf galaxies would test this without needing high redshift.
  • A cleaner observational falsifier of the pollution channel comes from lithium: if the winds are lithium-free, the most sodium-rich, oxygen-poor second-population stars should have measurably lower lithium, and existing samples may simply not reach the extreme abundance region.
  • The fully convective assumption could be checked with multi-dimensional simulations of convection in accreting stars; if rotationally induced mixing is what actually carries burning products to the surface, the minimum mass for pollution would shift and the model's yield scaling would need revision.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

4 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper proposes that the multiple populations (MPs) of globular clusters arise from winds of accreting extremely massive stars (aEMSs, roughly 10^3--10^4 M_sun) that form naturally when the inertial-inflow model of massive star formation is scaled to GC-mass clouds. It constructs a time-dependent, parameterized model of the IMF during GC formation (Section 3), including gas inflow, wind mass loss, helium evolution under accretion and nuclear burning, and dilution of processed wind material with pristine gas. Predictions are compared with Milky Way GC data for the helium spread Delta Y as a function of GC mass, the fraction of second-population stars f_P2, the O-Na and Mg-Al anticorrelations, and Li abundances. The authors conclude that GCs formed from gas with surface density Sigma_g ~ 1.5e3 M_sun pc^-2, that EMSs are a natural outcome of GC formation, that N-rich galaxies at high redshift may be dominated by EMS-rich GCs, and that EMS remnants may be intermediate-mass black holes above the pair-instability gap.

Significance. If the mechanism holds, the paper offers a single, analytically transparent framework that connects GC mass, metallicity, and the main abundance anomalies, with several genuinely testable predictions: the f_P2-M_GC slope, the mass/metallicity dependence of Mg-Al spreads, Li-dilution tracks, and gravitational-wave signatures of IMBHs. The inertial-inflow basis and the tabulated parameter choices are strengths, and the paper is commendably explicit about many of its uncertainties. However, the central mechanism depends on full convection in accreting EMSs, which current stellar models do not robustly establish, and some of the headline agreements are partly circular because Sigma_g is chosen to match the helium spread and abundance zero-points are adjusted after visual inspection. The quantitative case is therefore not yet as strong as the abstract implies.

major comments (4)
  1. [Section 6.2, Eq. (23)] The claim that aEMS winds carry hot-hydrogen-burning products rests entirely on the assumption that accreting stars above about 10^3 M_sun are fully mixed. Equation (23) omits the wind term explicitly on this basis, and Section 3.7.1 states that the abundances of the winds are the same as those in the stellar interior. The paper itself reports that Ramírez-Galeano et al. (2025) find full convection only in a mass range that depends strongly on the treatment of superadiabatic convection, and that for different treatments of energy transport the accreting model is never fully convective until the end of the main sequence. Because the dominant polluters are at a few times 10^3 M_sun (Section 3.7.2), the mechanism operates precisely in the mass range where the assumption is least secure. This is load-bearing: if the envelope remains radiative, winds are launched from unprocessed surface layers and the predicted anomalies largely disappear. The manuscript should either supply a dedicated stellar-model demonstration of full mixing for the relevant accretion-rate and metallicity range, or quantify how partial mixing or rotationally induced transport changes the yields and show that the observed trends survive.
  2. [Sections 3.6 and 5.2, Fig. 14] The vertical offset of the predicted Delta Y--M_GC relation is not an independent prediction. The text states that Sigma_g was selected because it gives satisfactory agreement with observed helium spreads (Section 3.6) and later concedes that the vertical offset is reproduced because it is sensitive to Sigma_g, 'whose value we picked to match these observations' (Section 5.2). Section 5.3 further uses f_P2 to constrain the same parameter. The slope of Delta Y with GC mass is a genuine scaling prediction, but the amplitude agreement is circular. The paper should present the comparison as a constraint on Sigma_g with a proper goodness-of-fit, or marginalize over plausible Sigma_g values, rather than listing the amplitude agreement as a success.
  3. [Section 5.4, Figs. 16-17] The comparison to O-Na and Mg-Al data is qualitative and includes manually adjusted zero-points: 'After visual inspection, we updated [O/Fe]_0 for NGC 4590 ... and [Al/Fe]_0 for NGC 1904, NGC 2808, NGC 3201, NGC 6254, NGC 6809 and NGC 6388 to [Al/Fe]_0 = -0.2.' These zero-points enter the model abundances directly, and no statistical metric (likelihood, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, etc.) is provided for the agreement shown in Figs. 16 and 17. The claim that the model reproduces the anticorrelations is therefore not yet quantitatively demonstrated. The paper should either fix the zero-points a priori from independent abundance determinations, show that the adjusted values are within the relevant observational uncertainties, or provide a quantitative comparison of the model distributions to the data.
  4. [Section 3.8, Figs. 16-17] The dilution model is acknowledged to be 'optimistic' and to involve physics that is 'complex, and its outcome uncertain', and Section 5.4 states that the model distributions are 'extremely sensitive to the details of the dilution model'. Because the dilution prescription (Eqs. 26-27, including the 50 percent pristine-outflow assumption) directly sets the shapes and extents of the O-Na and Mg-Al anticorrelations, the apparent success in Figs. 16 and 17 is not strongly constraining until the mixing physics is better justified or bracketed. At minimum, the paper should include a sensitivity study varying the pristine-outflow fraction and the assumed local mixing geometry, and show the resulting range of predicted anticorrelations.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Table 2] The caption title 'Summery' should be 'Summary'.
  2. [Fig. 14] The y-axis label of the top panel reads 'log10 YP2, P1' but the plotted quantity is the helium spread, not the absolute helium abundance; it should be 'log10 Delta Y_P2,P1' or similar.
  3. [Section 3.6] The phrase 'Sigma_g ≳ 10^3 M_sun pc2' is missing a superscript; it should be 'pc^-2'.
  4. [Section 7] The sentence in the Summary and Conclusions beginning '...released into the intra-cluster medium where they are di' is cut off and should be completed.
  5. [Section 5.4] The text 'blur the resulting 2-dimensional histograms with a Gaussian with two pixel width' should read 'a Gaussian with two-pixel width'.

Circularity Check

1 steps flagged · score 6.0 of 10

Partial circularity: Sigma_g is tuned to the helium spread, so the Delta Y amplitude is a fitted output; the mass/metallicity trends remain independent predictions.

  1. fitted input called prediction [Section 3.6 (Table 3) and Section 5.2 (Fig. 14)]
    "We will later show that ∆Y is sensitive to Σg and we find that for Σg =1.5×10^3 M⊙ pc−2 we obtain satisfactory agreement between the model and observed helium spreads, hence we adopt this from hereon."

    Sigma_g is a free environmental parameter of the model. The paper explicitly sets it to 1.5e3 M_sun/pc^2 because that value makes the model's helium spread agree with observations, and then in Section 5.2 presents the helium-spread comparison as a successful prediction, noting that 'the vertical offset is reproduced so well is because it is sensitive to Σg, whose value we picked to match these observations.' The amplitude of Delta Y is therefore enforced by construction rather than derived from the model. The Delta Y-M_GC slope, the f_P2 trends, and the Mg-Al anticorrelation shapes were not used to set Sigma_g and remain genuine predictions, so the circularity is partial.

full rationale

The aEMS model is mostly self-contained: the EMS mass scale comes from the inertial-inflow relation m_f,max = epsilon M_g, the wind/accretion balance sets m_infinity, and the yields come from the independent nucleosynthesis calculations of Prantzos et al. (2017). The mass slope of Delta Y, the f_P2 dependence on mass and metallicity, and the Mg-Al anticorrelation shapes are derived from these ingredients and were not used to calibrate Sigma_g. However, the vertical (amplitude) agreement of Delta Y in Fig. 14 is not an independent prediction: Section 3.6 states that Sigma_g was chosen to match the observed helium spread, and Section 5.2 explicitly credits the reproduced offset to that choice. The zero-point adjustments to [O/Fe]_0 and [Al/Fe]_0 in Section 5.4 are additional fitted elements, but they only set the locations of the abundance distributions and do not determine the predicted spreads. The fully-convective assumption for aEMSs (Section 6.2) is a load-bearing physical assumption with acknowledged dependence on uncertain convection modeling, but it is an input assumption rather than a circular reduction. Thus one headline prediction is partly a fit, while the remaining trends are independent, making the paper only partially circular.

Assumptions & free parameters 7 free parameters · 6 assumptions · 2 invented entities

The model rests on the inertial-inflow scaling (epsilon), an assumed constant SFE, a wind normalization boosted by hand, a surface density fitted to the helium spread, and a set of physical assumptions about full convection and local dilution. The fitted and hand-chosen parameters reduce the predictive content of the absolute abundance levels.

free parameters (7)
  • epsilon = 2.5e-3
    Sets maximum stellar mass as a fraction of cloud mass. Derived from MHD simulations (Padoan et al. 2020, Haugbolle et al. 2018) and consistent with Barnes et al. (2017) cloud data. Adopted as a universal constant.
  • SFE = 0.1
    Star formation efficiency, assumed constant. Converts gas mass to initial cluster mass and affects m_f,max and M_GC,0.
  • wind mass-loss normalization (mdot_wind,100 at Z_sun) = 30 Msun/Myr
    Wind mass-loss rate normalization for a 100 Msun solar-metallicity star. Chosen as 3 times the Sabhahit et al. (2023) non-rotating ZAMS value to account for evolution, rotation, and accretion. Ad hoc.
  • eta = 0.6
    Metallicity exponent in wind scaling, taken from Sabhahit et al. (2023).
  • Sigma_g = 1.5e3 Msun/pc^2
    Gas surface density. Fitted to reproduce the observed helium spread (Section 3.6).
  • tau_nuc = 3 Myr
    Nuclear timescale for helium production in EMSs, assumed from stellar models such as Higgins et al. (2023).
  • Y_init = 0.25
    Initial helium mass fraction of pristine gas, assumed from primordial abundance.
assumptions (6)
  • domain assumption Maximum stellar mass is proportional to cloud mass: m_f,max = epsilon M_g (Eq. 4), extrapolated from MHD simulations to GC scales.
    Inertial-inflow model of Padoan et al. (2020); the linear scaling is a key model input.
  • domain assumption Star-forming regions satisfy alpha_vir = 1 at all scales (Section 2.4).
    Used to express velocity dispersion in terms of surface density and radius; deviations change accretion rates and timescales.
  • ad hoc to paper Accreting EMSs are fully convective and fully mixed (Section 6.2).
    Load-bearing; if false, wind abundances do not reflect core yields. Paper admits minimum mass for full convection is uncertain.
  • ad hoc to paper Winds stall and mix locally with pristine gas; 50% of inflowing gas is ejected as pristine outflows and mixes with wind material (Section 3.8).
    Dilution model assumes local mixing and that wind material is incorporated only into low-mass stars.
  • domain assumption Nucleosynthesis yields are taken from Prantzos et al. (2017) constant-T, constant-density models at [Fe/H] = -1.5, scaled to other metallicities by proportionality of Na to Ne and Al to Mg (Section 5.4).
    Yields are an external input; the scaling ignores opacity-driven central temperature differences with metallicity.
  • domain assumption GC formation ends at the dynamical time tau_g, before the first supernovae (Section 3).
    Needed to avoid iron pollution and to set the duration of low-mass star formation.
invented entities (2)
  • Extremely massive stars (EMSs), 10^3-10^4 M_sun, and specifically accreting EMSs (aEMSs) independent evidence
    purpose: Polluters that produce the abundance anomalies via winds during accretion
    Predicted by the inertial-inflow scaling; not yet observed individually. Falsifiable handles: predicted IMBH remnants above about 120 M_sun, He II emission in high-redshift galaxies, and ELT could resolve them in NGC 5253-like clusters.
  • Intermediate-mass black holes above the pair-instability gap (120 to several thousand M_sun) left behind by EMSs independent evidence
    purpose: Predicted remnants that could be detected by gravitational wave experiments
    Distinct from repeated-merger channels by low spins; LIGO O5 could observe them at redshift greater than about 3.

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Pith. "Pith review of Globular cluster formation from inertial inflows: accreting extremely massive stars as the origin of abundance anomalies." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/TRSL3BTB

@misc{pith2026250112138,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Globular cluster formation from inertial inflows: accreting extremely massive stars as the origin of abundance anomalies},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/TRSL3BTB}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2501.12138}
}
abstract

We use the inertial-inflow model of massive star formation to describe the formation of globular clusters (GCs) in turbulent molecular clouds. A key aspect of this model is that the maximum stellar mass scales linearly with cloud mass, such that extremely massive stars (EMSs, $10^{3-4}\,\msun$) form in massive GCs ($\gtrsim10^5\,\msun$). The total wind mass loss is dominated by accreting EMSs (aEMSs), whose wind mass-loss rates have become comparable to their accretion rates ($\gtrsim10^{-2}\,\msun\,\yr^{-1}$). These winds pollute the intra-cluster medium with hot-hydrogen burning yields during GC formation. We propose a parameterised model for the evolution of the stellar mass function during GC formation ($\sim 1-2\,\myr$), accounting for gas inflow, wind mass loss and mixing of aEMS yields with pristine gas that has initial proto-GC abundances. Low-mass stars ($\lesssim1\,\msun$) form continuously from this mixed gas and their abundances resemble observed abundance trends with GC mass and metallicity, specifically: (i) the helium spread in a typical GC is small ($\Delta Y \simeq 0.01$) and increases with GC mass; (ii) the fraction of polluted stars increases with GC mass and metallicity; (iii) the extent of the Mg-Al anticorrelations is more pronounced in metal-poor and massive GCs. We conclude that GCs formed with a population of EMSs from gas with surface densities $\gtrsim10^3\,\msun\,\pc^{-2}$ and that nitrogen-rich galaxies discovered by the James Webb Space Telescope ({\it JWST}) are dominated by EMS-rich GCs that formed in the earliest phases of galaxy formation. These EMSs may have left behind intermediate-mass black holes with masses above the pair-instability gap ($\gtrsim120\,\msun$) that could be found with ongoing gravitational wave experiments.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2501.12138 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Schematic picture of the (normalised) IMF, where mψ(ln m) = m 2ψ(m) and ψ(m) is defined as the number of stars in the interval [m, m+dm]. Below 1 M⊙ stars form with a Chabrier-like IMF (Chabrier 2003) via frag￾mentation. More massive stars grow in mass via accretion from turbulence driven inertial inflows with a power-law Salpeter/Kroupa slope. Allowing the IMF to extend to ∼ 104 M⊙ enables a large fraction of the t… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. The time to reach 95 per cent of the final mass, tf , versus the final mass, mf , for 1,503 stars with mass ⩾ 2.5 M⊙ that have stopped accreting at the time t = 30 Myr in the simulation from Padoan et al. (2020). The curved solid line shows an analytic fit to the relation between stellar lifetime, tSN, and mass from Schaller et al. (1992). The dashed line is the lower envelope of the scatter plot corresponding to th… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Cloud dynamical time, τg, versus maximum stellar mass, mf,max, for three different values of the gas column density, Σg, characterizing molec￾ular clouds in the Galaxy, GC environments, and the Central Molecular Zone (red lines from top to bottom respectively). The filled blue circle corresponds to our prototypical GC progenitor with Mg = 6 × 106 M⊙. Lines of constant value of the maximum accretion rate, ˙macc,max =… view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (15 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Schematic view of GC formation. Turbulence is driven by primarily by SNe on a scale of ∼ 100 pc, leading to inertial flows on that scale. In the centre, a cluster of stars accumulate, together with a reservoir of gas that did not make it onto stars. After some time, th…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Source function S (tform, mf) as a function of mf following from equation (22). The formation of seeds of the most massive stars is skewed to earlier tform, to ensure that all stars are done accreting at τg. 3.5 Building the initial mass function Here we combine the sc…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: shows the time evolution of the IMF for this cluster (top) as well as the total accretion rates and V/EMS wind mass-loss rates as a function of mass (bottom). We plot the mass function as mψ(ln m), where ψ(ln m) ≡ dN/d ln(m) = mψ(m), such that a flat mψ(ln m) cor￾respo…
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Evolution of ∆Y (top), FN,wind, FNa,wind, FAl,wind (middle) and fdil (bottom) as a function of V/EMS mass for the time evolving stellar mass function of [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p010_8.png]
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Central temperatures, Tc, of stars of different masses, at different evolutionary stages(∆Y) for [Fe/H] = −1.5 from Prantzos et al. (2017). A simple functional fit over the relevant mass range is shown, that reproduces Tc well for ∆Y ⩽ 0.55. helium, which is an encoura…
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Top: Different contributions to the total wind mass-loss rate |M˙ wind|, and the wind mass loss rate of star contributing to the pollution, M˙ wind,poll = M˙ wind,aEMS + M˙ wind,pV/EMS. Bottom: Average dilution factor (blue), and those of the contributing components. …
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Wind mass-loss averaged ∆Y (⟨∆Y⟩wind, top) and average fdil (bottom) for different MGC and [Fe/H]. Note that ⟨∆Y⟩wind is before dilution, so it is the maximum ∆Y a P2 star can have, if it formed for 100% of wind material. 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 lo g10 m V/EMS wind/M 4.5 …
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Wind mass-loss averaged V/EMS mass (⟨mV/EMS⟩wind, top) and central temperature (⟨Tc⟩wind, bottom) for different MGC and [Fe/H]. Critical Tc for Mg depletion to become important is shown as a horizontal dashed line. Massive and metal-poor GCs had EMSs with Tc above thi…
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Helium spread (∆YP2,P1, top) and fraction of polluted stars (fP2, bottom) for different MGC,0 and [Fe/H] in the aEMS model. Data points are Milky Way GCs from Milone et al. (2018b) (top) and Milone et al. (2017) (bottom). The aEMS model reproduces observed typical ∆YP…
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Variation of ∆YP2,P1 (top) and fP2 (bottom) for different Σg. All models adopted [Fe/H] = −1. Grey dots are Milky Way GCs, also shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p017_15.png]
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: O-Na abundances for stars in 16 GCs derives from high-resolution UVES spectra by Carretta et al. (2009b). Red dots show detections for both Na and O, and blue arrows indicate stars for which only an upper limit for O was available. Black dots show results from lower r…
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Mg-Al abundances for stars in 16 GCs derives from high-resolution UVES spectra by Carretta et al. (2009b). Red dots show detections for both Mg and Al, and blue arrows indicate stars for which only an upper limit for Al was available. Black dots show results from lowe…
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Left: Abundance of Li (A(Li)) as a function of [Na/Fe] for for main sequence stars in M 4 (NGC 6121, Teff > 5880 K) and NGC 6397 (V < 3.3 mag) combined with a dilution track for typical V/EMS yields, assuming V/EMS are devoid of Li. The model can reproduce the ‘mild’ …
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Comparison of ⟨Tc⟩wind with Carretta’s bivariate relation for all 16 GCs with UVES data available. The increase shows that Carretta’s empirical quantity is a good indicator of temperature. covered by stars in M4, Mucciarelli et al. (2011) find a near con￾stant A(Li). …
Figure 20
Figure 20. Figure 20: Distributions of the main abundances for the typical GC model of Section 3.6. The undiluted(diluted) yields are shown with dashed(full) lines, where the coloured lines show the distributions at different times, and the black lines show the totals. Clear bi-modality is…

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Forward citations

Cited by 1 Pith paper

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score. Full citation record

  1. Collision-induced mass loss and mass gain on an extremely massive star. An analytical approach and a static proto-globular cluster test-case

    astro-ph.SR 2025-06 conditional novelty 6.0 of 10

    Collisions can make extremely massive accreting stars lose or gain significant mass, and a "conveyor belt" state can process over 10^4 M_sun of gas, potentially explaining globular cluster abundance anomalies.

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 10, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.