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arxiv: 2606.25025 · v1 · pith:VGRHHXXNnew · submitted 2026-06-23 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Investigating black hole accretion and feedback self-regulation in Seyfert galaxies using the FIRE-3 cosmological hydrodynamic simulations

Jonathan Mercedes-Feliz (1) , Daniel Angl\'es-Alc\'azar (1) , Jose Cevallos (1) , Boon Kiat Oh (2 , 1) , Santiago Garc\'ia-Burillo (3) , Rachel K. Cochrane (4) , Cristina Ramos Almeida (5
show 23 more authors
6) Claude-Andr\'e Faucher-Gigu\`ere (7) Almudena Alonso-Herrero (8) Alexander J. Richings (9) Miguel Pereira-Santaella (10) Jorge Moreno (11) Niranjan Chandra Roy (1) Tanio D\'iaz-Santos (12 13) Philip F. Hopkins (14) ((1) UConn (2) Korea Institute for Advanced Study (3) Observatorio Astron\'omico Nacional (4) University of Manchester (5) Instituto de Astrof\'isica de Canarias (6) Universidad de La Laguna (7) Northwestern (8) Centro de Astrobiolog\'ia (9) University of Hull (10) Instituto de F\'isica Fundamental (11) Pomona (12) FORTH (13) European University Cyprus (14) Caltech)
This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-25 23:39 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords black hole accretionAGN feedbackSeyfert galaxiescosmological simulationsnuclear gas reservoirsself-regulationFIRE-3
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The pith

Simulations reproduce Seyfert galaxy diversity but miss observed anti-correlation between AGN luminosity and nuclear gas concentration.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper examines black hole accretion and AGN feedback in four Milky Way-mass galaxies using FIRE-3 cosmological hydrodynamic simulations. It finds recurrent cycles of gas inflow, enhanced accretion, and feedback that opens central cavities and suppresses inflow on 10-100 Myr timescales. These models match the variety of nuclear morphologies, gas concentrations, and AGN luminosities observed in late-type Seyfert galaxies. They allow higher-luminosity AGN to coexist with feedback cavities, especially in centrally peaked gas distributions. However, they do not show a clear anti-correlation between gas concentration on 50-200 pc scales and AGN luminosity, highlighting the importance of timing in inflow, disk depletion, and feedback clearing for self-regulation.

Core claim

Focusing on the late-time evolution of four Milky Way-mass galaxies, the simulations show recurrent cycles of increased gas inflow toward the accretion disc, enhanced BH accretion, feedback self-regulation, and suppressed gas inflow rate until the next fueling event. AGN winds interact with the ISM and escape preferentially through low-density polar channels after opening central cavities on ~10-500pc scales, regulating BH growth and producing episodic behaviour on ~10-100Myr timescales. The simulations reproduce the observed diversity of nuclear morphologies, gas concentrations, and AGN luminosities in late-type Seyfert galaxies, but do not exhibit a clear anti-correlation between gas conce

What carries the argument

Recurrent cycles of gas inflow, black hole accretion, and AGN feedback self-regulation through polar wind channels and central cavity formation on 10-500 pc scales.

If this is right

  • AGN feedback produces episodic behavior on 10-100 Myr timescales.
  • Higher luminosity AGN are more common in galaxies with centrally-peaked gas distributions.
  • Feedback-driven cavities allow coexistence of high AGN luminosity with gas reservoirs.
  • The timing of gas inflow, accretion-disk depletion, and feedback-driven clearing is a key constraint on self-regulation models.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Improved resolution of accretion disk physics could change the timing and produce the missing anti-correlation.
  • Future observations with matched spatial resolution and tracer selection can test if the simulated lack of anti-correlation is due to model limitations or observational effects.
  • AGN self-regulation in these galaxies may be more episodic than steady models assume.

Load-bearing premise

Differences in sample selection, tracer choice, spatial resolution, and stochasticity in AGN fueling can fully account for the tension with observations rather than a shortcoming in the timing of gas inflow, accretion-disk depletion, and feedback-driven clearing on 50-200 pc scales.

What would settle it

Finding a clear anti-correlation between gas concentration on 50-200 pc scales and AGN luminosity in observations that closely match the simulation sample selection and resolution would falsify the simulation results if the tension persists.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.25025 by 1), (10) Instituto de F\'isica Fundamental, (11) Pomona, (12) FORTH, 13), (13) European University Cyprus, (14) Caltech), (2) Korea Institute for Advanced Study, (3) Observatorio Astron\'omico Nacional, (4) University of Manchester, (5) Instituto de Astrof\'isica de Canarias, 6), (6) Universidad de La Laguna, (7) Northwestern, (8) Centro de Astrobiolog\'ia, (9) University of Hull, Alexander J. Richings (9), Almudena Alonso-Herrero (8), Boon Kiat Oh (2, Claude-Andr\'e Faucher-Gigu\`ere (7), Cristina Ramos Almeida (5, Daniel Angl\'es-Alc\'azar (1), Jonathan Mercedes-Feliz (1), Jorge Moreno (11), Jose Cevallos (1), Miguel Pereira-Santaella (10), Niranjan Chandra Roy (1), Philip F. Hopkins (14) ((1) UConn, Rachel K. Cochrane (4), Santiago Garc\'ia-Burillo (3), Tanio D\'iaz-Santos (12.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Projected gas mass surface density distribution across scales in one of our simulations (m12i) at z = 0. The colourbars encode surface density on a logarithmic scale with their range optimized to the different dynamic range in each panel. In the largest panel, we show the large-scale structure surrounding the galaxy on ∼10 Mpc scales (with the dark matter distribution illustrated in gray), zooming-in progr… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Projected gas mass surface density distribution for the four simulated Milky Way-mass galaxies analysed in this study (from top to bottom: m12b, m12i, m12f, and m12m) at representative times with different levels of AGN activity. The face-on projection (left) shows the central 5 kpc region, while the edge-on projection (right) shows the central 10 kpc region. Inflowing gas is represented in blue hues, outf… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: For the four simulations, we show the time evolution of the inflow rate from galaxy scales down to the subgrid accretion disc (M˙ AD; top panel), the accretion rate onto the BH (M˙ BH; middle panel), and the gas mass surface density within the BH kernel (Σ256; bottom panel). The colour scale for each line indicates the size of the BH kernel (R256), defined as the radius that encompasses the nearest 256 gas… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: The M˙ AD–M˙ BH diagram for simulation m12f, showing the inflow rate onto the accretion disc (M˙ AD) versus the accretion rate onto the BH (M˙ BH). Points show individual time-steps throughout the simulation while the solid line is a running average over 1 Myr. The colour scale denotes time evolution, focusing on the last 1 Gyr of this galaxy. The dashed lines repre￾sent different ratios ξ ≡ M˙ BH/M˙ AD, w… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Left: Time evolution of gas concentration (top) and enclosed radii (bottom) during the last 1 Gyr of simulation m12i. The gas concentration is computed as the ratio of the surface density in the central 50 pc to 200 pc region (blue) or between R32 and R256 (red). Open markers indicate upper limits. Enclosed radii R256 (pink) and R32 (green) are defined to contain a fixed number of gas resolution elements (… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Gas concentration as a function of X-ray luminosity over the last Gyr for our four simulated galaxies. Gas concentration is defined as the ratio between the gas surface density within 50 pc and 200 pc (top panels) or within R32 and R256 (bottom panels). The X-ray luminosity is estimated based on the inflow rate down to the accretion disc (L AD X ; left panels) or based on the accretion rate onto the BH (L … view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Gas mass surface density (Σgas) as a function of distance to the BH for different bins in X-ray luminosity (LX), estimated based on the inflow rate down to the accretion disc (L AD X ; left) or based on the accretion rate onto the BH (L BH X ; right). Colours indicate the range of LX in each bin, increasing from purple to red. Solid lines represent median radial profiles, with shaded regions enclosing the … view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Similar to [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p013_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Gas concentration versus X-ray luminosity over the last 1 Gyr of evolution for galaxy m12b. BH-specific outputs provide high-cadence L AD X measurements, which are assigned to the adaptive gas concentration ΣR32 /ΣR256 computed for the closest data snapshot available. The line con￾necting data points indicates the trajectory of the galaxy, smoothed using cu￾bic spline interpolation and colour-coded by simu… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Recent observations of local Seyfert galaxies show an intriguing connection between Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) luminosity and a deficit of molecular gas on ~50pc scales compared to 200pc, the plausible imprint of AGN feedback. Motivated by these findings, we investigate the interplay between supermassive black hole (BH) accretion, AGN feedback, and nuclear gas reservoirs using high-resolution cosmological hydrodynamic simulations implementing FIRE-3 multi-phase interstellar medium (ISM) physics and multi-component BH accretion and feedback models. Focusing on the late-time evolution of four Milky Way-mass galaxies, we find recurrent cycles of increased gas inflow toward the accretion disc, enhanced BH accretion, feedback self-regulation, and suppressed gas inflow rate until the next fueling event. AGN winds interact with the ISM and escape preferentially through low-density polar channels after opening central cavities on ~10-500pc scales, regulating BH growth and producing episodic behaviour on ~10-100Myr timescales. The simulations reproduce the observed diversity of nuclear morphologies, gas concentrations, and AGN luminosities in late-type Seyfert galaxies, but do not exhibit a clear anti-correlation between gas concentration and AGN luminosity. Higher-luminosity AGN ($L_X$~$10^{41.5-43}$ erg s$^{-1}$) powered by the accretion disc reservoir can coexist with feedback-driven cavities, consistent with observations, but they are more common in simulated galaxies with centrally-peaked gas distributions. Although differences in sample selection, tracer choice, spatial resolution, and stochasticity in AGN fueling may impact underlying concentration-luminosity trends, the apparent tension between simulations and observations points to the timing between gas inflow, accretion-disc depletion, and feedback-driven clearing on ~50-200pc scales as a key constraint on AGN self-regulation models.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 1 minor

Summary. The paper presents FIRE-3 cosmological hydrodynamic simulations of four Milky Way-mass galaxies to investigate supermassive black hole accretion, AGN feedback, and nuclear gas reservoirs in Seyfert galaxies. It reports recurrent 10-100 Myr cycles of gas inflow, enhanced accretion, feedback self-regulation via polar winds that open cavities on 10-500 pc scales, and episodic suppression of inflow. The simulations reproduce observed diversity in nuclear morphologies, gas concentrations, and AGN luminosities but find no clear anti-correlation between gas concentration (50-200 pc) and AGN luminosity; the authors interpret the tension with observations as arising from the timing of inflow, disk depletion, and feedback clearing, while noting possible effects from sample selection, tracers, resolution, and stochasticity.

Significance. If the reported absence of anti-correlation and the identification of timing as a key constraint hold under broader sampling, the work would provide a useful forward-modeling benchmark for AGN self-regulation in multi-phase ISM simulations, clarifying how polar escape channels and episodic behavior shape nuclear gas distributions in late-type galaxies and offering a concrete target for refining accretion-disk and feedback prescriptions.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The central claim of no clear anti-correlation between gas concentration and AGN luminosity, and the inference that timing on 50-200 pc scales is the key missing ingredient, rests on late-time snapshots from exactly four galaxies. Given the text's emphasis on recurrent stochastic fueling cycles, this sample size precludes separating model behavior from realization variance and undermines the robustness of attributing the tension to timing rather than undersampling.
  2. [Abstract] Abstract: No quantitative error bars on the reported diversity reproduction, no convergence tests, and no direct statistical comparison (e.g., Spearman rank or binned means with uncertainties) to the observational Seyfert sample are provided, preventing a rigorous assessment of whether the simulated lack of anti-correlation is statistically distinguishable from the observed trend.
minor comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: The luminosity range notation "L_X~$10^{41.5-43}$" should be written explicitly as 10^{41.5} to 10^{43} erg s^{-1} for clarity.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for the constructive comments on our manuscript. We address each major comment point by point below, indicating planned revisions where appropriate.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: The central claim of no clear anti-correlation between gas concentration and AGN luminosity, and the inference that timing on 50-200 pc scales is the key missing ingredient, rests on late-time snapshots from exactly four galaxies. Given the text's emphasis on recurrent stochastic fueling cycles, this sample size precludes separating model behavior from realization variance and undermines the robustness of attributing the tension to timing rather than undersampling.

    Authors: We agree that the sample of four galaxies limits the ability to fully separate stochastic realization variance from systematic model behavior, particularly given the recurrent fueling cycles. The lack of anti-correlation and the timing interpretation are based on consistent patterns across all four galaxies, but we acknowledge this does not constitute a statistically robust separation. In the revised manuscript we will expand the abstract and discussion to explicitly qualify the sample-size limitation, state that the timing hypothesis is suggestive based on the available realizations, and note that larger samples will be required in future work to confirm the result. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: No quantitative error bars on the reported diversity reproduction, no convergence tests, and no direct statistical comparison (e.g., Spearman rank or binned means with uncertainties) to the observational Seyfert sample are provided, preventing a rigorous assessment of whether the simulated lack of anti-correlation is statistically distinguishable from the observed trend.

    Authors: We acknowledge that the current version describes diversity qualitatively without formal error bars, convergence tests, or statistical comparisons. In revision we will add uncertainties on the measured gas concentrations and AGN luminosities from the simulation snapshots and compute a Spearman rank correlation for the simulated points to enable direct comparison with the observational trend. We will also add a short discussion of resolution effects drawing on existing FIRE-3 convergence studies, while noting that dedicated higher-resolution runs for these specific galaxies are not feasible within the present computational allocation. These changes will allow a clearer statistical assessment of the simulated versus observed trends. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity in forward-modeling simulation results

full rationale

The paper runs fixed FIRE-3 prescriptions on four Milky Way-mass galaxies and reports emergent outcomes (recurrent cycles, diversity of morphologies, absence of clear gas-concentration vs. AGN-luminosity anti-correlation). No parameters are fitted to the target observations, no equations reduce a claimed prediction to its inputs by construction, and no self-citation chain supplies a uniqueness theorem that forces the central result. The comparison to observations and qualitative interpretation of tension are post-simulation and do not alter the independence of the simulation outputs from the input physics.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on the pre-existing FIRE-3 ISM and BH accretion/feedback prescriptions; no new free parameters are introduced in the abstract, but the model inherits standard sub-grid choices for feedback efficiency and accretion disk physics from earlier papers.

axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Hydrodynamic equations and multi-phase ISM cooling/heating rates as implemented in FIRE-3
    Invoked throughout the simulation description; these are standard but not re-derived here.
  • domain assumption Multi-component black hole accretion and feedback model accurately captures real nuclear gas dynamics on 10-500 pc scales
    Central modeling choice stated in the abstract; if inaccurate, the reported cycles and lack of anti-correlation would not map to observations.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 6094 in / 1462 out tokens · 24395 ms · 2026-06-25T23:39:45.810756+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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Reference graph

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