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arxiv: 2605.05353 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-06 · 💻 cs.CL · cs.AI

Counterargument for Critical Thinking as Judged by AI and Humans

Tosin Adewumi , Marcus Liwicki , Foteini Simistira Liwicki , Lama Alkhaled , Hamam Mokayed , Esra S\"umer-Arpak This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-05-08 16:23 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 💻 cs.CL cs.AI
keywords critical thinkinggenerative AIcounterargumentsrubric assessmentLLM judgesinter-rater reliabilitystudent writingAI in education
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The pith

Students' counterarguments to AI-generated theses contain logic as a key sign of critical thinking, and LLMs can assess such writing with moderate alignment to human judges.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper investigates whether having students write counterarguments to AI-generated thesis statements can develop critical thinking skills amid risks of cheating and offloading with Generative AI. Students in one university course received four selected thesis statements and produced written responses, which were evaluated using six rubrics for focus, logic, content, style, correctness, and references. Human judges consisting of two student peers and one experienced teacher scored the 35 valid submissions on a 5-point Likert scale, and the same rubrics were applied by six frontier LLMs. Results show that the student counterarguments include logic along with other elements of critical thinking, and that LLM assessments generally align with human ones according to Gwet's AC2 inter-rater reliability of 0.33 for all but one model. This opens a path for GenAI to both prompt critical responses and handle large-scale evaluation of written work when clear rubrics are provided.

Core claim

The authors establish that students' self-written counterarguments to AI-generated content contain logic, among other things, which is a key component of critical thinking, and that GenAI can be successfully used at scale to assess students' written work based on clear rubrics, with assessments generally aligning with human assessments as shown by Gwet's AC2 inter-rater reliability values of 0.33 for all the models except one.

What carries the argument

Six established rubrics (focus, logic, content, style, correctness, reference) applied uniformly to student counterarguments against AI-generated thesis statements, enabling direct quantitative comparison between human and LLM judges on the same 5-point scale.

Load-bearing premise

The six rubrics, especially the logic rubric, validly measure critical thinking and the single-course sample of 35 submissions generalizes beyond this university setting and topic set.

What would settle it

A replication study with a larger multi-institution sample where either the logic rubric scores fail to correlate with an independent validated critical thinking test or where the LLMs show substantially lower agreement with humans than the reported AC2 of 0.33.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.05353 by Esra S\"umer-Arpak, Foteini Simistira Liwicki, Hamam Mokayed, Lama Alkhaled, Marcus Liwicki, Tosin Adewumi.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Diverging Stacked bar chart for Expert Assessment. view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Diverging Stacked bar chart for Average Student Assessment. view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Diverging Stacked bar chart for Average AI Assessment. view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Bar chart of medians view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Bar chart of modes view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Box Plot of Expert Assessment. only the six LLMs. We observe a very strong positive mono￾tonic correlation between logic and focus (0.882) and logic and correctness (0.893). The table also shows the 2 ChatGPT 5.2 models have the largest average difference between the two cor￾related rubrics Logic and Correctness, though one would have expected a smaller difference, as with others. ChatGPT 5.1 de￾viates mos… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Z score distribution for expert reviews. view at source ↗
read the original abstract

This intervention study investigates the use of counterarguments in writing for critical thinking by students in the context of Generative AI (GenAI). This is especially as risks of cheating and cognitive offloading exist with the use of GenAI. We presented 36 students in a particular university course with 4 carefully selected thesis statements (from a set of popular debates) to write about anyone of them. We used six established rubrics (focus, logic, content, style, correctness and reference) to conduct three human assessments (two student peer-reviews and one experienced teacher) per writeup on a 5-point Likert scale for all the qualified samples (n) of 35 submissions (after disqualifying one for irregularity). Using the same rubrics and guidelines, we also assessed the submissions using six frontier LLMs as judges. Our mixed-method design included qualitative open-ended feedback per assessment and quantitative methods. The results reveal that (1) the students' self-written counterarguments to AI-generated content contains logic, among other things, which is a key component of critical thinking, and (2) GenAI can be successfully used at scale to assess students' written work, based on clear rubrics, and these assessments generally align with human assessments as shown with Gwets AC2 inter-rater reliability values of 0.33 for all the models except one.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper reports an intervention study with 35 students writing counterarguments to AI-generated theses on four debate topics. Six rubrics (focus, logic, content, style, correctness, reference) were applied on a 5-point scale by three human raters (two peers, one teacher) and six frontier LLMs per submission. Mixed-methods analysis of quantitative scores and qualitative feedback leads to two claims: (1) student counterarguments demonstrate logic (among other elements) as a key component of critical thinking, and (2) LLMs can assess student writing at scale using clear rubrics, with assessments generally aligning with humans (Gwet's AC2 = 0.33 for five of six models).

Significance. If the central claims hold after addressing sample and validation limitations, the work provides empirical support for using counterargument tasks to promote critical thinking in GenAI contexts and for deploying LLMs as scalable graders when rubrics are explicit. The mixed-methods design with multiple human raters and six LLMs offers direct comparative evidence, and the use of established rubrics plus open-ended feedback is a strength. However, the moderate AC2 value and single-course sample constrain claims about broad applicability in education.

major comments (3)
  1. [Methods (rubrics and assessment design)] Methods section on rubrics and participant selection: The first central claim rests on the 'logic' rubric scores indicating critical thinking, yet no validation data, citations to established CT instruments (e.g., Watson-Glaser or Delphi Report), or correlation with external CT measures are provided. This is load-bearing because the rubric is treated as directly measuring a 'key component' without supporting evidence.
  2. [Results (quantitative analysis) and Discussion] Results and Discussion on inter-rater reliability: Gwet's AC2 = 0.33 is presented as evidence of general alignment supporting scalable AI assessment, but the value is moderate, one model is an exception, and no error bars, confidence intervals, or baseline comparisons (e.g., to random or majority-class agreement) are reported. This directly affects the strength of claim (2) on successful use at scale.
  3. [Methods (participants) and Limitations] Methods and Limitations: The sample is restricted to 35 submissions from one university course on four specific topics. No power analysis, multi-site replication plan, or discussion of how rubric scores or AI-human agreement might vary by discipline, institution, or prompt set is included, limiting support for generalization in the abstract and conclusions.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract and Methods] The abstract states 'n of 35 submissions (after disqualifying one)' but the introduction mentions 36 students; clarify the exact number of valid submissions and disqualification criteria.
  2. [Results] Table or figure presenting per-model AC2 values and per-rubric breakdowns would improve clarity; currently the single aggregate 0.33 value is hard to interpret without seeing variation across rubrics or models.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for these constructive comments on our manuscript. We address each major point below with clarifications and indicate where revisions will be made to strengthen the paper.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Methods (rubrics and assessment design)] Methods section on rubrics and participant selection: The first central claim rests on the 'logic' rubric scores indicating critical thinking, yet no validation data, citations to established CT instruments (e.g., Watson-Glaser or Delphi Report), or correlation with external CT measures are provided. This is load-bearing because the rubric is treated as directly measuring a 'key component' without supporting evidence.

    Authors: We agree that explicit links to critical thinking frameworks would strengthen the first claim. Logic is a core component in established definitions such as the Delphi Report (Facione, 1990), which we will cite in the revised Introduction and Methods when describing the rubrics. The six rubrics were selected from established writing assessment practices for their applicability to argumentative counterarguments. However, this study did not include external validation against instruments like the Watson-Glaser or correlations with other CT measures, as the design focused on an intervention with rubric-based scoring. We will expand the Methods to justify the rubric choice and more explicitly note this as a limitation while qualifying the claim language. revision: partial

  2. Referee: [Results (quantitative analysis) and Discussion] Results and Discussion on inter-rater reliability: Gwet's AC2 = 0.33 is presented as evidence of general alignment supporting scalable AI assessment, but the value is moderate, one model is an exception, and no error bars, confidence intervals, or baseline comparisons (e.g., to random or majority-class agreement) are reported. This directly affects the strength of claim (2) on successful use at scale.

    Authors: We will revise the Results and Discussion sections to report confidence intervals for the Gwet's AC2 values and include baseline comparisons to chance-level agreement. We acknowledge that 0.33 indicates moderate agreement, which is typical for subjective writing evaluations but not strong evidence of equivalence; we will temper the language of claim (2) to describe 'moderate alignment' and discuss the exception for one model. These additions will be incorporated in the next version. revision: yes

  3. Referee: [Methods (participants) and Limitations] Methods and Limitations: The sample is restricted to 35 submissions from one university course on four specific topics. No power analysis, multi-site replication plan, or discussion of how rubric scores or AI-human agreement might vary by discipline, institution, or prompt set is included, limiting support for generalization in the abstract and conclusions.

    Authors: We will expand the Limitations section to address the single-course sample of 35 submissions, note that no a priori power analysis was conducted (as the study was exploratory), and qualify statements in the abstract and conclusions to indicate preliminary findings. We will also add discussion of potential variations by topic based on our existing data and recommend future multi-site studies for broader generalization. The sample cannot be expanded retrospectively. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; empirical study relies on external rubrics and ratings

full rationale

The paper reports an empirical intervention study that applies six established rubrics to 35 student submissions, obtains human ratings (peer and teacher), runs the same rubrics on six LLMs, and computes Gwet's AC2 inter-rater agreement. No equations, fitted parameters, or derived quantities appear in the provided text. The rubrics are described as established rather than defined inside the paper; the central claims (presence of logic in counterarguments and general alignment of LLM assessments) are direct empirical observations, not reductions of one quantity to another by construction. No self-citation chains or uniqueness theorems are invoked as load-bearing premises. The analysis therefore contains no self-definitional, fitted-input, or self-citation circularity steps.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The study rests on standard assumptions about rubric validity and Likert-scale measurement rather than introducing new free parameters, axioms, or entities. No fitted constants or invented constructs are required for the reported findings.

axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Established rubrics (focus, logic, content, style, correctness, reference) validly capture components of critical thinking
    Invoked when linking logic scores to critical thinking in the results section
  • standard math Gwet's AC2 is an appropriate measure for inter-rater agreement on ordinal rubric scores
    Used to quantify alignment between human and LLM assessments

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5568 in / 1564 out tokens · 28587 ms · 2026-05-08T16:23:19.065033+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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Reference graph

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