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Characterising the multiple protostellar system VLA 1623-2417 with JWST, ALMA and VLA: outflow origins, dust growth and an unsettled disk

T0 review · 2 major / 5 minor · reviewed 2026-08-09 · deepseek-v4-flash

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Pith's one-line read VLA 1623 B's millimetre dust is suspended high above the midplane of its young disk, challenging assumptions about early dust settling.

desk verdict Careful multi-wavelength study with a genuinely new outflow-cavity detection, but the unsettled-disk claim rests on a by-eye fit and should be reframed. read the letter →

arxiv 2501.18348 v1 pith:Z7HQQTKI submitted 2025-01-30 astro-ph.SR astro-ph.EPastro-ph.GA

Isaac C. Radley , Gemma Busquet , John D. Ilee , Hauyu Baobab Liu , Jaime E. Pineda , Klaus M. Pontoppidan , Enrique Macías , María José Maureira
show 11 more authors
Eleonora Bianchi Tyler L. Bourke Claudio Codella Jan Forbrich Josep M. Girart Melvin G. Hoare Ricardo Hernández Garnica Izaskun Jiménez-Serra Laurent Loinard Jazmín Ordóñez-Toro Linda Podio
This is my paper · ORCID
classification astro-ph.SRastro-ph.EPastro-ph.GA
keywords protostarsClass0/IdisksdustsettlinggrowthmillimetreinterferometryVLA1623JWSTspectralenergydistribution
verification ladder T0 review T1 audit T2 compute T3 formal

The pith

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The reading

This paper uses JWST, ALMA, and VLA observations to map the multiple protostellar system VLA 1623-2417 from 4 µm to 3 cm. The central claim is that the inclined disk around VLA 1623 B has an optical depth surface at about z/r ~ 0.3, implying that millimetre-sized dust has not yet settled toward the midplane. This adds VLA 1623 B to a growing catalog of unsettled Class 0/ I disks, suggesting that large grains can remain vertically extended during the earliest stages of disk evolution. The paper also finds evidence for significant dust growth (maximum grain sizes >1 mm), optically thick emission at ALMA frequencies, and ionised gas dominating below ~15 GHz. These results matter because they push the time window for planet formation back to the very beginning of disk evolution.

What carries the argument

The central object is a flared emission surface parameterisation of the form z(r) = z0 (r/1")^psi exp(-(r/rtaper)^qtaper), implemented with the GoFish package. This surface, matched by eye to the observed 217 GHz dark-lane morphology, traces the tau = 1 optical depth surface in the inclined VLA 1623 B disk. The resulting z/r ~ 0.3 value is the key quantity used to argue that millimetre dust is vertically extended. Supporting machinery includes a two-component (dust + ionised gas) power-law SED fit with MCMC, and dust emission models using DSHARP opacities to constrain grain sizes and masses.

What would settle it

A radiative transfer model of a warped or scattering disk that reproduces the observed 217 GHz dark lane and brightness asymmetry without requiring z/r ~ 0.3 would falsify the unsettled-disk interpretation. Alternatively, resolved polarisation observations at 217 GHz that detect a self-scattering pattern consistent with settled grains (rather than an optically thick surface) would also challenge the claim.

Watch

Extended reading notes

Core claim

The authors establish that VLA 1623 B hosts a highly inclined disk whose 217 GHz continuum emission is seen through a flared, tau = 1 surface at relative heights z/r = 0.25–0.35. They interpret this as a direct view of large dust grains suspended well above the midplane, interpreted as a lack of vertical dust settling in a Class 0 disk. Using a parameterised emission surface model (z0 = 0.5", psi = 1.1, rtaper = 0.23", qtaper = 2.0), they trace the dark lane and brightness asymmetry across the minor axis and conclude that the millimetre dust is vertically well mixed, possibly due to gravitational instability or infall-driven turbulence. The paper also reports the first detection of an outflow cavity from VLA 1623 B, identifies VLA 1623 Aa as the likely driver of the large-scale outflow, and derives lower-limit dust masses (tens to hundreds of Earth masses) from SED modelling that includes mutual obscuration of dust and ionised gas components.

Load-bearing premise

The by-eye match of a single flared-disk surface model to the 217 GHz dark-lane morphology is assumed to uniquely represent the physical dust scale height, but other geometries such as a warp, anisotropic scattering, or envelope extinction could produce a similar appearance.

Editorial extensions

If this is right

  • If the unsettled disk interpretation is correct, large dust grains can be suspended at high altitudes during the Class 0 phase, implying that vertical settling is not a rapid process in the youngest disks.
  • All four objects being optically thick at 217 and 93 GHz means that current dust mass estimates are lower limits, and true disk masses may be substantially larger.
  • The detection of >1 mm grains in all sources suggests that the first stages of dust growth to planetesimal scales can occur within the embedded protostellar phase.
  • Ionised gas emission contributes more than 50% of the flux at 10 GHz in several objects, so future centimetre-wavelength observations with higher resolution are needed to separate dust from gas and to measure the vertical structure of the largest grains.
  • The outflow cavity detected for VLA 1623 B confirms that this object drives its own jet, and the perpendicular 10 GHz extension seen for VLA 1623 Aa points to Aa as the origin of the large-scale outflow.

Reading between the lines

Editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If unsettled millimetre dust is common in Class 0/I disks, then the streaming instability or other planetesimal formation mechanisms might operate earlier and at larger disk radii than typically assumed, potentially seeding planet formation within the first ~0.5 Myr.
  • The dark lane and brightness asymmetry in VLA 1623 B could alternatively be interpreted as a warped inner disk or as anisotropic scattering by large grains; a multi-wavelength radiative transfer model would be needed to break this degeneracy.
  • The lack of observed spiral structure in the optically thick 217 GHz image does not rule out gravitational instability: the tau = 1 surface hides the midplane where spirals would be strongest, and a more optically thin tracer (e.g., at >90 GHz) with comparable resolution would be required to test this.
  • Future observations with next-generation centimetre interferometers (e.g., ngVLA, SKA) at ~10 GHz could resolve the vertical structure of the cm-sized grains and directly measure whether the largest dust particles are also vertically extended or have settled to a thin layer, providing a sharper test of the unsettled-disk scenario.
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Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, and a circularity audit.

Referee Report

2 major / 5 minor

Summary. The paper presents new JWST/NIRCam 4.4 μm, ALMA Band 6/3, and VLA Q/K/X-band continuum observations of the VLA 1623-2417 multiple protostellar system, resolving components Aa, Ab, B, and W. The authors measure fluxes, sizes, and spectral indices; decompose the millimetre-centimetre SEDs into dust and ionised gas components with an MCMC two-power-law fit and a physical dust+ionised gas model; and interpret a dark lane and brightness asymmetry in the 217 GHz image of VLA 1623 B as a flared τ=1 surface with z/r≈0.3, concluding that millimetre dust is vertically unsettled and possibly tracing gravitational instability. They also report JWST outflow cavities for Aa and B and evidence for large (≳1 mm) dust grains in all objects.

Significance. The observational dataset is valuable and the reductions are careful: variability between VLA epochs is explicitly assessed, astrometric offsets between instruments are corrected, and flux uncertainties are reported. The paper also walks through the limitations of its SED modelling honestly in the appendix. If the z/r≈0.3 unsettled-disk claim for VLA 1623 B is correct, it would be an important addition to the small catalogue of Class 0/I disks with vertically extended millimetre dust, with implications for early dust evolution. However, the most distinctive conclusion currently rests on a by-eye morphological match, and the gravitational-instability inference relies on a dust mass from a model that the authors themselves show cannot simultaneously reproduce the low- and high-frequency SED.

major comments (2)
  1. [Section 4.1 with Table 2] The central claim that the τ=1 surface in VLA 1623 B lies at z/r=0.25–0.35 is supported only by a by-eye match of the four-parameter flared surface in Eq. (4) to the 217 GHz dark lane and NW asymmetry. No fit statistic, parameter uncertainties, or residual map are provided, and the same morphology is not quantitatively compared with the 93 GHz image, where flaring is stated to be much less prominent. Alternative geometries—such as a geometrically thin optically thick disk with a temperature gradient, anisotropic scattering, foreground envelope extinction, or a warped disk—are not tested. Because this result appears in the abstract and in the first bullet of Section 5, the by-eye fit is load-bearing. The manuscript should either add a quantitative fit (e.g., a χ2 or likelihood comparison over the surface parameters, ideally with radiative transfer) or explicitly downgrade the z/r claim to a preliminary morphology note pending future modelling.
  2. [Section 4.1 with Table 2] The argument that VLA 1623 B may be gravitationally unstable uses the single-dust-population dust mass of 650 M⊕ from Table 2 to derive a disk-to-star mass ratio of about 0.1 and then states that the disk is 'very likely' unstable. This mass is taken from a model that Section 3.2.2 explicitly says cannot reproduce both the low-frequency (10–44 GHz) and high-frequency (217–350 GHz) spectral indices simultaneously, and the model parameters are described as degenerate. It is therefore not a reliable quantitative basis for a GI claim. The authors should either fit a multi-component model with meaningful parameter uncertainties, or present the GI suggestion as a highly speculative possibility and clearly separate it from the empirical z/r measurement.
minor comments (5)
  1. [Abstract] The phrase 'morphology and, properties' contains a stray comma; please rephrase.
  2. [Section 3.4] Reporting the GoFish surface parameters without uncertainties is insufficient for reproducibility; a small table or figure with the parameter ranges explored would help.
  3. [Section 3.2.1] For VLA 1623 Aa and Ab, the 4.5 and 7.5 GHz fluxes are upper limits but are treated as detections in the MCMC; the authors note that this overestimates the αIonised uncertainties, but the resulting jet/wind discussion in Section 4.3.1 should more prominently reflect this caveat.
  4. [Table B2] The flux difference entry for VLA 1623 W at 10 GHz (0.04 ×10−1 mJy) appears to be a typo; please check the value and formatting.
  5. [Section 4.1] The disk-to-star mass ratio estimate assumes a 1:100 dust-to-gas ratio; given the acknowledged optical depth and the unknown gas-to-dust ratio in embedded Class 0 disks, this ratio should be presented with a much wider uncertainty range.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged · score 2.0 of 10

No load-bearing circularity; the central unsettled-disk claim is a model interpretation of independent data, not a fitted input renamed as a prediction.

full rationale

The paper's derivation chain is largely self-contained. The SED decomposition (Eq. 1) fits a two-power-law model to independent fluxes from this work plus Harris et al. (2018) and Dzib et al. (2013); the dust masses and amax values in Table 2 are outputs of an MCMC forward model using externally published DSHARP opacity tables (Birnstiel et al. 2018), not quantities imposed by the inputs. The z/r ~ 0.3 statement in Sections 3.4, 4.1, and 5 is obtained by choosing the flared-surface parameters (Eq. 4: z0=0.5'', psi=1.1, rtaper=0.23'', qtaper=2.0) to match the observed 217 GHz dark lane; reporting the resulting surface height is a fitted-parameter description rather than a prediction forced by construction. The fragility of this by-eye match (no fit statistic, no alternative-model testing, and the authors' own caveat that 'determining the precise origin ... requires dedicated radiative transfer modelling') is a robustness/correctness concern, not circularity. Self-citations exist — Liu et al. (2019, 2021) for the SED component approach and the forward-looking 'Radley et al. in prep.' — but they supply methodology and future work, not the load-bearing premise; the gravitational-instability speculation in Section 4.1 uses the independently derived dust mass and an external stellar-mass estimate (Sadavoy et al. 2024). No step reduces an output to an input by definition or by a self-citation chain, so the paper earns a low non-circular score despite the interpretive weakness of the flared-surface measurement.

Assumptions & free parameters 10 free parameters · 8 assumptions · 0 invented entities

The central physical claims (dust masses, amax >1 mm, gravitational instability) rest on a large number of fitted parameters and literature-based assumptions about dust opacities, gas-to-dust ratio, and source geometry. No new physical entities are introduced; the halo/core/grown/inner SED components are phenomenological and explicitly degenerate. The free-parameter count is high relative to the number of independent flux measurements (at most eight per source), so the quantitative model results should be treated as order-of-magnitude estimates.

free parameters (10)
  • alphaDust (two-power-law SED slope) = 2.16 to 2.32 (Table 1, Figure 4)
    Free spectral index of the dust power-law component in Eq. 1; constrained by MCMC to 1.5-3.8 and fitted to the observed SED.
  • alphaIonised = -0.34 to 0.35 across sources
    Free spectral index of the ionised gas power-law component in Eq. 1; prior -1.5 to 1.5.
  • A1 and A2 scaling amplitudes = Not tabulated; set via preliminary least squares then MCMC
    Amplitudes in Eq. 1, bounded to 0-1.4; they set the relative dust and ionised gas normalisation.
  • Tdust (single-component physical model) = 25 to 236 K (Table 2)
    Dust temperature in the physical SED model of Section 3.2.2; flat prior spanning one order of magnitude.
  • Sigmadust (dust column density) = 4.5 to 23 g cm^-2 (Table 2)
    Column density in the physical SED model; degenerate with amax and Omega.
  • amax (maximum grain size) = 2.8 to 19 mm (Table 2); 0.05-25 mm in qualitative models
    Maximum grain size used to compute opacities; the >1 mm conclusion is one of the paper's main claims but amax is unconstrained for several components.
  • Omegadust (solid angle) = 0.20 to 2.6 x 10^-12 sr (Table 2)
    Solid angle subtended by the dust emission component in the physical model.
  • EM (emission measure) = 1.5e7 to 2.98e7 cm^-6 pc (Table 2); up to 8e8 in Appendix E models
    Emission measure of the ionised gas component in Eq. E1; fitted but degenerate with Omega and Te.
  • OmegaIonised (ionised gas solid angle) = 4.3e-4 to 0.28 x 10^-12 sr (Table 2)
    Solid angle of the ionised gas emission component.
  • GoFish surface parameters (z0, psi, rtaper, qtaper) = z0=0.5'', psi=1.1, rtaper=0.23'', qtaper=2.0
    Set by eye to match the 217 GHz morphology; no uncertainties, used for the unsettled disk claim.
assumptions (8)
  • domain assumption DSHARP dust opacity model with water-ice coating below 170 K applies to these Class 0/I disks.
    Invoked in Section 3.2.2 and Appendix E to convert flux densities into dust masses and optical depths; opacity choices dominate the dust mass uncertainty.
  • domain assumption Dust grains are compact and follow n(a) proportional to a^-3.5 from amin=0.1 micron to amax.
    Adopted from Birnstiel et al. 2018 via DSHARP; amin is stated to be insensitive but the power-law slope and compact morphology are assumed.
  • domain assumption A constant dust-to-gas mass ratio of 1:100 holds for VLA 1623 B and the other disks.
    Used in Section 4.1 to convert a 650 M_Earth dust mass into a disk-to-star mass ratio near 0.1; if the ratio differs, the gravitational instability interpretation weakens.
  • domain assumption Ionised gas emission is free-free with electron temperature Te=8000 K.
    Assumed in Appendix E.1 for all ionised gas components because the data cannot constrain Te, EM, and Omega simultaneously.
  • domain assumption The deprojected disk inclination is obtained from the deconvolved major-to-minor axis ratio assuming a geometrically thin disk.
    Stated in Section 3.1.2; the authors note this may underestimate the true inclination of flared disks.
  • ad hoc to paper The two-power-law model of Eq. 1 adequately represents the SED across 4.5-350 GHz.
    This model form is chosen for the MCMC decomposition and later shown by the authors to be insufficient at both low and high frequencies, prompting qualitative multi-component models.
  • ad hoc to paper The parametric flared surface in Eq. 4 with the adopted by-eye parameters describes the 217 GHz emission surface of VLA 1623 B.
    Used in Section 3.4 to measure z/r ~0.3; no quantitative fit or radiative transfer verification is provided.
  • domain assumption The 217 GHz dark lane and brightness asymmetry trace a flared tau=1 surface rather than scattering or foreground absorption.
    Needed for the unsettled disk interpretation; alternative explanations are acknowledged but not modelled.

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Cite this review

Pith. "Pith review of Characterising the multiple protostellar system VLA 1623-2417 with JWST, ALMA and VLA: outflow origins, dust growth and an unsettled disk." pith.science (2026). https://pith.science/paper/Z7HQQTKI

@misc{pith2026250118348,
  author       = {Pith},
  title        = {Pith review of: Characterising the multiple protostellar system VLA 1623-2417 with JWST, ALMA and VLA: outflow origins, dust growth and an unsettled disk},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://pith.science/paper/Z7HQQTKI}},
  note         = {Machine review of arXiv:2501.18348}
}
read the original abstract

Utilising JWST, ALMA and the VLA we present high angular resolution (0.06''- 0.42''), multi-wavelength (4 micron - 3cm) observations of the VLA 1623-2417 protostellar system to characterise the origin, morphology and, properties of the continuum emission. JWST observations at 4.4 micron reveal outflow cavities for VLA 1623 A and, for the first time, VLA 1623 B, as well as scattered light from the upper layers of the VLA 1623 W disk. We model the millimetre-centimetre spectral energy distributions to quantify the relative contributions of dust and ionised gas emission, calculate dust masses, and use spectral index maps to determine where optical depth hinders this analysis. In general, all objects appear to be optically thick down to ~90 GHz, show evidence for significant amounts (10's - 100's M_Earth) of large (>1 mm) dust grains, and are dominated by ionised gas emission for frequencies ~<15 GHz. In addition, we find evidence of unsettled millimetre dust in the inclined disk of VLA 1623 B possibly attributed to instabilities within the circumstellar disk, adding to the growing catalogue of unsettled Class 0/I disks. Our results represent some of the highest resolution observations possible with current instrumentation, particularly in the case of the VLA. However, our interpretation is still limited at low frequencies (~<22 GHz) and thus motivates the need for next-generation interferometers operating at centimetre wavelengths.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2501.18348 by the authors.

Figure 1
Figure 1. (a) JWST/NIRCam First Anniversary image centred on the VLA 1623 system, showing the pc-scale bipolar outflows (NASA/ESA/CSA/STScI). (b) Zoom-in toward VLA 1623 Aa, Ab and B. The colour scale shows emission from the JWST/NIRCam 4.4 µm filter (peak normalised with a square root stretch) tracing the base of the SE outflow. White contours show the ALMA 1.4 mm (217 GHz) emission dominated by thermal dust emission (8, 125… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. JWST/NIRCam F444W (4.4 µm) images toward VLA 1623 Aa/Ab, B, and W overlaid with ALMA 217 GHz continuum emission (white contours at 8, 125, 350σ, where σ = 0.02 mJy beam−1 ). Each panel is peak normalised and shown with a logarithmic stretch. Opening angles of 135◦ and 75◦ are shown for reference in panels (a) and (b), respectively. to observations of scattered light toward other edge-on disks observed in both infrar… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Continuum images of VLA 1623 Aa + Ab (Left), B (Middle) and W (Right). We show 3-, 5-, and 10-σ contours based on the image RMS in white solid lines for all VLA images. The σ values used in each VLA image for each object are shown as the σrms presented in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p008_3.png] view at source ↗
Figures from the paper (4 more)
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: SED of each object overlaid with the models described in Section 3.2.1. Fluxes derived from this work are shown as filled circles while literature values are shown with open circles. Upper limits are shown as arrows. The shaded region shows random draws from the poster…
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Top: SED models for the VLA 1623 Aa and Ab resolved, integrated fluxes alongside the combined model, A, for the unresolved C-band data (Dzib et al. 2013). Symbols show the observational data, coloured lines show the SEDs of individual emission components in our model (…
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Spectral index maps for each object and each adjacent frequency pair. For B and W, we centre each image on the peak pixel of the object in the highest frequency continuum image and for Aa and Ab we centre the image on the binary midpoint. We show a 50 au scale bar whic…
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: (a) Zoom-in of the 217 GHz ALMA image of VLA 1623 B shown with a colormap to highlight faint features. The grey line denotes a cut across the minor axis of the disk. (b) Intensity along the minor axis cut from (a) compared with a mirrored profile (dashed line). There i…

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Forward citations

Cited by 2 Pith papers

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Pith tools

Reviewed August 9, 2026 · model on record in the stance chip above.