pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2605.09733 · v1 · submitted 2026-05-10 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Recognition: no theorem link

Small and Complex I: The Three Component Structure of z sim 0 Massive Compact Quiescent Galaxies

K. Slodkowski Clerici , A. Schnorr-M\"uller , A. C. Santiago-Menezes , M. Trevisan , T. V. Ricci , R. Merib-Dias , F. Palacios , W. L. Becker
show 1 more author
F. Ferrari
Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-12 03:32 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords compact quiescent galaxiesgalaxy morphologySersic decompositionS0 galaxiesstellar envelopesstructural analysis
0
0 comments X

The pith

Massive compact quiescent galaxies mostly require three structural components unlike typical ones.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper examines the light profiles of 246 massive compact quiescent galaxies at low redshift through multi-component Sersic fits to g- and r-band images, comparing them against a control sample of average-sized quiescent galaxies matched in stellar mass, star formation rate, redshift, and color. It shows that 75 percent of the compact galaxies are best described by three components consisting of a central bulge, a disk, and an outer envelope, whereas only 7 percent of the control galaxies need such a model. Both samples are dominated by S0 galaxies with low rates of interactions or disturbances, but the compact galaxies lack bars entirely and their disks are substantially smaller. The envelopes display a wide range of ellipticities, which the authors link to possible stellar halos or thick disks.

Core claim

Multi-component decompositions of the g- and r-band images show that 75% of massive compact quiescent galaxies require a three-component model (bulge, disk, and envelope), while only 7% of control sample galaxies exhibit a comparable three-component structure. For three-component systems the bulge and envelope sizes are similar between samples, but the disks in compact galaxies are significantly more compact.

What carries the argument

Three-component Sersic decomposition separating a bulge, a disk, and an envelope in galaxy surface brightness profiles.

If this is right

  • The prevalence of three components ties the overall compactness of these galaxies to the presence of both a compact disk and an extended outer part.
  • Similar bulge and envelope sizes across samples but smaller disks in compact galaxies indicate that disk scale length is a primary driver of the observed compactness.
  • The absence of bars in compact galaxies suggests dynamical differences from normal quiescent galaxies that may reflect distinct formation paths.
  • The broad range of envelope ellipticities supports the interpretation that this component is either a stellar halo or a thick disk.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • If the components prove physically real, these galaxies likely experienced an early dense core formation followed by later addition of disk and envelope material.
  • Kinematic maps could test whether the envelope rotates independently of the inner disk, providing a direct check on its identity as a halo or thick disk.
  • Repeating the same decompositions on higher-redshift compact quiescent galaxies would show whether the three-component structure is already in place at earlier epochs.

Load-bearing premise

The three fitted Sersic components represent physically distinct galactic structures rather than fitting artifacts or projection effects from inclination.

What would settle it

Integral-field spectroscopy that shows the envelope component has no distinct kinematics or stellar populations from the disk would indicate the three components are not separate structures.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.09733 by A. C. Santiago-Menezes, A. Schnorr-M\"uller, F. Ferrari, F. Palacios, K. Slodkowski Clerici, M. Trevisan, R. Merib-Dias, T. V. Ricci, W. L. Becker.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Sample selection: SDSS quiescent galax￾ies are shown in orange, MCGs in red, and CSGs in green. Top panel: log Re versus log σe with a linear fit of log re = 0.8784 · log σe − 1.2265 (σfit = 0.2287). Bottom panel: log σe versus log M⋆ and a linear fit of log σe = 0.2538 · log M⋆ − 0.5622 (σfit = 0.0865). WISE Legacy Catalog (GSWLC; Salim et al. 2018). Effective radii (Re), defined as the semi-major axis of… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Comparison of stellar mass (M⋆), star formation rate (SFR), redshift (z), and g − i color for MCGs from HSC-SSP (red filled histograms) and CSGs from HSC-SSP (green step histograms). The dashed lines indicate the median values of each sample. P-values from Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests are shown in each panel. Galaxies in the MCG and control samples were matched based on four properties: stellar mass, star form… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Example of an MCG fitted with three structural components (bulge, disk, and envelope). Displayed from left to right are the r-band image, the PSF convolved model, the residuals and the surface brightness profile of the galaxy and the individual model components. All panels are masked using the corresponding galaxy mask. smaller than 10◦ , the same bounds (set to ±10◦ around the median PA) were adopted for … view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Morphological classification of MCGs and CSGs. In the top panel we show the numerical t-type, in the bottom panel we show PS0, which gives the probability of an early type galaxy (t-type < 0) being classified as an S0. The pa￾rameters were extracted from the morphological catalog of Dom´ınguez S´anchez et al. (2018). between the two samples, rather than to provide a pre￾cise census of such features, we rel… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Example RGB composite images of representative three-component MCGs (top row) and CSGs (bottom row). Galaxies in both samples exhibit similar structures, with stellar disks embedded within a rounder, low–surface-brightness envelope. 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 Disk 1 2 3 Density KS p = 6.258e-13 MCG (2 comp, N=42) MCG (3 comp, N=186) 2 comp = 0.36 ± 0.18 3 comp = 0.65 ± 0.15 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Disk ellipticity (ϵDisk) distributions for two- and three-component MCGs and CSGs. Severely disturbed and barred galaxies were excluded. Three-component systems tend to show higher ϵDisk, consistent with the detectability of the envelope being affected by inclination. ded within rings. No bars are detected in MCGs, and only three MCGs show rings. These rings differ from those observed in CSGs, as they are … view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Structural properties of 3C-MCGs (186 galaxies) and 3C-CSGs (35 galaxies). The first row shows the S´ersic index, effective radius, and ellipticity of the bulge component. The second row presents the disk scale length, scale height, and the ratio between them. In the third row, we show the effective radius and ellipticity of the stellar envelope, and the fourth row displays the flux-to-total ratio of each … view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Mass-size relation of the the bulge (blue cir￾cles), disk (orange triangles) and envelope (green squares) of 3C-MCGs. Best fitting relations are shown as colored dashed lines. Bulge and disk mass–size relations for z ∼ 0 early-type disks (dashed black line) and bulges (dot–dashed black line) from Lange et al. (2016), and relations for 0.5 < z < 1.0 quiescent disks (solid black line) and 1.0 < z < 1.5 quies… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Dark matter halo masses of MCGs and CSGs. Central galaxies are shown in the top panel, satellites on the bottom panel. Both MCGs and CSGs are found across a va￾riety of environments. Most are central galaxies of low-mass halos or satellites in massive groups and galaxy clusters. 4.6. Environment and Morphology It is well established that galaxy environment and morphology are correlated, in the sense that g… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Envelope ellipticity (left panel), disk-to-total (center panel), and envelope-to-total (right panel) flux ratios for central (75 galaxies) and satellite (117 galaxies) 3C-MCGs. Median values are indicated by dashed lines. No statistically significant differences are found between the samples, disfavoring a major role for disk heating by frequent tidal interactions in shaping the outer structure of 3C-MCGs… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: (g − r) restframe color distribution of the disk (orange), bulge (blue) and envelope (green) components of 3C-MCGs. Median values are indicated by dashed lines. While the bulge and disk exhibit similar distributions, the envelope show bluer colors. shows a structure resembling a peanut bulge, while the r- and i-band image shows no clear evidence for the presence of such structure. In conclusion, the heter… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: RGB composite images of relic candidates. Except for MCG 9, all are best-fitted by three-component models. These galaxies do not show any significant difference in relation to the parent MCG sample except for their extremely compact sizes. quire detailed dynamical studies; however, several argu￾ments disfavor (but do not rule out) this interpretation. First, in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p012_12.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We investigate the morphology and structural properties of 246 massive compact quiescent galaxies (MCGs; $\log M_{\star} \sim 10$-$11$, $\sigma_{\mathrm{e}} \sim 150$-$350\,$km\,s$^{-1}$, $R_{\mathrm{e}} \sim 0.7$-$2.5\,$kpc) at $z \sim 0$, selected as outliers in the stellar mass-velocity dispersion and velocity dispersion-size relations, using $g$-, $r$-, and $i$-band Hyper Suprime-Cam images. We compare them to a control sample of average-sized quiescent galaxies (CSGs) matched in stellar mass, star formation rate, redshift, and $g-i$ color. Both samples are dominated by S0 galaxies, comprising $93\%$ of MCGs and $71\%$ of CSGs, while ellipticals account for $4\%$ and $11\%$, respectively. The fraction of interacting or morphologically disturbed systems is low in both samples ($13\%$ for MCGs and $16\%$ for CSGs). Multi-component decompositions of the $g$- and $r$-band images show that $75\%$ of MCGs require a three-component model (bulge, disk, and envelope), while $21\%$ are best fit by two components and $4\%$ by a single S\'ersic profile. Two-component MCGs are preferentially low-inclination systems, suggesting that the three-component fraction represents a lower limit. In contrast, only $7\%$ of CSGs exhibit a comparable three-component structure. Bars are present in $29\%$ of CSGs but are absent in MCGs. For three-component systems, MCGs and CSGs have similar bulge ($R_\mathrm{e}=0.39$ vs.\ $0.45$\,kpc) and envelope ($R_\mathrm{e}=6.4$ vs.\ $5.8$\,kpc) sizes, while MCG disks are significantly more compact ($R_\mathrm{e}=1.9$ vs.\ $3.3$\,kpc). The envelope component shows a broad ellipticity distribution ($\epsilon_\mathrm{Envelope} \sim 0.0$-$0.6$), which we interpret as corresponding to either a stellar halo or a thick disk.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript analyzes the structural properties of 246 massive compact quiescent galaxies (MCGs) at z ≈ 0 using multi-component Sersic decompositions on Hyper Suprime-Cam g- and r-band images, comparing them to a control sample of average-sized quiescent galaxies (CSGs) matched in stellar mass, SFR, redshift, and g-i color. It reports that 75% of MCGs require a three-component model (bulge, disk, and envelope) while only 7% of CSGs do, with MCG disks significantly more compact (Re ≈ 1.9 kpc vs. 3.3 kpc for CSGs); both samples are dominated by S0 galaxies (93% and 71%), show low interaction rates, and the envelope component is interpreted as a stellar halo or thick disk based on its broad ellipticity distribution.

Significance. If the decompositions prove robust, the work demonstrates that MCGs possess a distinct three-component structure absent in typical quiescent galaxies of similar mass and color, with implications for formation scenarios involving early compaction and subsequent disk assembly. The matched control sample, large sample size, and absence of bars in MCGs are notable strengths that could constrain simulations of galaxy structural evolution. The finding that MCG disks are more compact than those in CSGs while bulges and envelopes have similar sizes provides a concrete observational benchmark.

major comments (3)
  1. [§3] §3 (image decomposition methods): The precise model-selection criterion for adopting a three-component fit (e.g., Δχ² threshold, BIC/AIC difference, F-test, or visual inspection) is not stated. Because Sersic profiles are flexible, an extra component will always improve the fit; without this statistic or recovery tests on mock images, the reported 75% vs. 7% difference cannot be confidently attributed to physical structure rather than fitting degrees of freedom.
  2. [§4] §4 (results on two-component systems): The statement that two-component MCGs are preferentially low-inclination (implying the three-component fraction is a lower limit) lacks a quantitative comparison, such as axis-ratio histograms or a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, between the two-component MCG subsample and the full CSG sample to confirm that inclination distributions are comparable.
  3. [§3] §3 (robustness of fits): No details are provided on fitting convergence, parameter uncertainties, or tests against mock galaxies with known components and realistic PSF convolution. These checks are load-bearing for the central fractions, size comparisons (e.g., disk Re = 1.9 vs. 3.3 kpc), and the claim that three-component models are physically distinct.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract and §4: The abstract states decompositions were performed on g- and r-band images, but the full text should clarify whether i-band data were used for any component constraints or only for morphology classification.
  2. [§4] §4: The envelope ellipticity range (εEnvelope ∼ 0.0–0.6) is given without quoting the median or standard deviation; adding these statistics would aid comparison to literature halo or thick-disk samples.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their constructive comments on our manuscript. We address each major point below and have revised the paper to incorporate additional methodological details and statistical tests as recommended.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [§3] §3 (image decomposition methods): The precise model-selection criterion for adopting a three-component fit (e.g., Δχ² threshold, BIC/AIC difference, F-test, or visual inspection) is not stated. Because Sersic profiles are flexible, an extra component will always improve the fit; without this statistic or recovery tests on mock images, the reported 75% vs. 7% difference cannot be confidently attributed to physical structure rather than fitting degrees of freedom.

    Authors: We agree that the precise model-selection criterion should be stated explicitly. In the revised manuscript, we will describe our use of a BIC improvement threshold (ΔBIC > 10) along with visual inspection of residuals to decide on the number of components. We will also add recovery tests on mock galaxies to show that the fitting procedure reliably identifies three-component structures when present and does not overfit two-component systems, thereby supporting the reported difference between MCGs and CSGs. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [§4] §4 (results on two-component systems): The statement that two-component MCGs are preferentially low-inclination (implying the three-component fraction is a lower limit) lacks a quantitative comparison, such as axis-ratio histograms or a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, between the two-component MCG subsample and the full CSG sample to confirm that inclination distributions are comparable.

    Authors: We agree that a quantitative comparison is needed to support the claim. In the revised manuscript, we will include axis-ratio histograms comparing the two-component MCGs to the CSG sample and report the results of a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test on their distributions. This will provide the statistical evidence for the inclination bias and confirm that the three-component fraction is indeed a lower limit. revision: yes

  3. Referee: [§3] §3 (robustness of fits): No details are provided on fitting convergence, parameter uncertainties, or tests against mock galaxies with known components and realistic PSF convolution. These checks are load-bearing for the central fractions, size comparisons (e.g., disk Re = 1.9 vs. 3.3 kpc), and the claim that three-component models are physically distinct.

    Authors: We acknowledge the importance of these robustness checks. The revised manuscript will include details on the convergence criteria used during fitting, the uncertainties on the derived parameters (such as effective radii), and results from tests on mock galaxies with known components convolved with the appropriate PSF. These additions will strengthen the reliability of the reported fractions and size comparisons. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: purely empirical decomposition fractions from image fits

full rationale

The paper reports observed fractions (75% of MCGs vs 7% of CSGs requiring three-component Sersic models) obtained by fitting g- and r-band images of two matched samples. No equation, parameter fit, or self-citation reduces the reported three-component fraction to itself by construction; the result is a direct count of which models are selected by the fitting procedure on external photometric data. The analysis contains no derivation chain, uniqueness theorem, ansatz smuggled via prior work, or renaming of a known result. Minor self-citations (if present) are not load-bearing for the central empirical claim.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the assumption that Sersic-profile multi-component fits recover physically meaningful structures and that the outlier selection in mass-velocity dispersion and velocity dispersion-size relations cleanly isolates a distinct population.

free parameters (1)
  • Sersic indices and effective radii per component
    Fitted per galaxy during decomposition; central claim depends on the resulting component counts and sizes.
axioms (2)
  • domain assumption Sersic profiles adequately describe the light distribution of bulge, disk, and envelope components
    Invoked when performing the multi-component decompositions described in the abstract.
  • domain assumption The control sample matching removes all relevant selection biases
    Used to interpret the difference in three-component fraction as intrinsic.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5815 in / 1372 out tokens · 49899 ms · 2026-05-12T03:32:56.622787+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

95 extracted references · 95 canonical work pages

  1. [1]

    , keywords =

    Antitruncation of Disks in Early-Type Barred Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/431739 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0505216 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/431739

  2. [2]

    , keywords =

    The Fornax 3D project: Unveiling the thick disk origin in FCC 170; possible signs of accretion. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833193 , archivePrefix =. 1901.04310 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833193 1901

  3. [3]

    The MASSIVE Survey. II. Stellar Population Trends Out to Large Radius in Massive Early-type Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/807/1/11 , archivePrefix =. 1504.02483 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/807/1/11

  4. [4]

    , keywords =

    The Catalog of Southern Ringed Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/192113 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/192113

  5. [5]

    , keywords =

    Massive Relic Galaxies Challenge the Co-evolution of Super-massive Black Holes and Their Host Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/808/1/79 , archivePrefix =. 1506.02663 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/808/1/79

  6. [6]

    Third Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies

    work page

  7. [7]

    Handbuch der Physik , year = 1959, month = jan, volume =

    Classification and Morphology of External Galaxies. Handbuch der Physik , year = 1959, month = jan, volume =. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45932-0_7 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45932-0_7 1959

  8. [8]

    , keywords =

    A monolithic collapse origin for the thin and thick disc structure of the S0 galaxy <ASTROBJ>ESO 243-49</ASTROBJ>. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629292 , archivePrefix =. 1608.04238 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629292

  9. [9]

    , keywords =

    The Fornax 3D project: Thick disks in a cluster environment. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935154 , archivePrefix =. 1904.01260 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935154 1904

  10. [10]

    2012 , month = apr, journal =

    SPIDER - VII. Revealing the stellar population content of massive early-type galaxies out to 8R _ e. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21848.x , archivePrefix =. 1208.0587 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21848.x 2012

  11. [11]

    , keywords =

    The frequency and stellar-mass dependence of boxy/peanut-shaped bulges in barred galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx620 , archivePrefix =. 1703.01602 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx620

  12. [13]

    , keywords =

    The Evolution of Galaxy Structure Over Cosmic Time. , keywords =. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-040037 , archivePrefix =. 1403.2783 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-040037

  13. [14]

    , keywords =

    Galaxy groups in the low-redshift Universe. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1462 , archivePrefix =. 1706.02307 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1462

  14. [15]

    , keywords =

    Robust galaxy image decompositions with differential evolution optimization and the problem of classical bulges in and beyond the nearby Universe. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/staf2072 , archivePrefix =. 2511.13823 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staf2072

  15. [16]

    , keywords =

    A Catalog of Detailed Visual Morphological Classifications for 14,034 Galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/186/2/427 , archivePrefix =. 1001.2401 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0067-0049/186/2/427

  16. [17]

    , keywords =

    First data release of the Hyper Suprime-Cam Subaru Strategic Program. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/pasj/psx081 , archivePrefix =. 1702.08449 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/pasj/psx081

  17. [18]

    , keywords =

    A Catalog of Bulge+disk Decompositions and Updated Photometry for 1.12 Million Galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/196/1/11 , archivePrefix =. 1107.1518 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0067-0049/196/1/11

  18. [19]

    2005 , month = sep, journal =

    The SAURON project - IV. The mass-to-light ratio, the virial mass estimator and the Fundamental Plane of elliptical and lenticular galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09981.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0505042 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09981.x 2005

  19. [20]

    , keywords =

    Dust Attenuation Curves in the Local Universe: Demographics and New Laws for Star-forming Galaxies and High-redshift Analogs. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aabf3c , archivePrefix =. 1804.05850 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aabf3c

  20. [21]

    , keywords =

    Nature versus nurture: relic nature and environment of the most massive passive galaxies at z < 0.5. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038373 , archivePrefix =. 2006.13235 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038373 2006

  21. [22]

    Studying late-type spiral galaxies using SDSS

    The structure of galactic disks. Studying late-type spiral galaxies using SDSS. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20064883 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0603682 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20064883

  22. [23]

    , keywords =

    A cosmological context for compact massive galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv455 , archivePrefix =. 1503.03078 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stv455

  23. [24]

    , keywords =

    Superdense Massive Galaxies in Wings Local Clusters. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/712/1/226 , archivePrefix =. 0907.2392 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/712/1/226

  24. [25]

    , keywords =

    The Environment of Massive Quiescent Compact Galaxies at 0.1 < z < 0.4 in the COSMOS Field. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/815/2/104 , archivePrefix =. 1508.03346 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/815/2/104

  25. [26]

    , keywords =

    Massive relic galaxies prefer dense environments. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1240 , archivePrefix =. 1605.06503 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1240

  26. [27]

    2004, MNRAS, 351, 1379, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07876.x

    The environmental dependence of the relations between stellar mass, structure, star formation and nuclear activity in galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08117.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0402030 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08117.x 2004

  27. [28]

    , keywords =

    Galaxy morphology in rich clusters: implications for the formation and evolution of galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/157753 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/157753

  28. [29]

    , keywords =

    Relationship between Environment and the Broadband Optical Properties of Galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/422897 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0310453 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/422897

  29. [30]

    , keywords =

    An Optimal Strategy for Accurate Bulge-to-disk Decomposition of Disk Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa7da4 , archivePrefix =. 1709.00746 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa7da4

  30. [31]

    , keywords =

    Bars, Ovals, and Lenses in Early-Type Disk Galaxies: Probes of Galaxy Evolution. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/692/1/L34 , archivePrefix =. 0901.0641 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/692/1/l34

  31. [32]

    , keywords =

    Improving galaxy morphologies for SDSS with Deep Learning. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty338 , archivePrefix =. 1711.05744 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty338

  32. [33]

    , archivePrefix = "arXiv", eprint =

    Near-infrared atlas of S0-Sa galaxies (NIRS0S). , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19283.x , archivePrefix =. 1110.1996 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19283.x 2011

  33. [34]

    , keywords =

    The K-Band Luminosities of Galaxies: Do S0s Come from Spiral Galaxies?. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/427408 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/427408

  34. [35]

    The Carnegie-Irvine Galaxy Survey. VII. Constraints on the Origin of S0 Galaxies from Their Photometric Structure. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aacdac , archivePrefix =. 1806.06350 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aacdac

  35. [36]

    , keywords =

    Fossil Evidence for the Two-phase Formation of Elliptical Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/768/2/L28 , archivePrefix =. 1304.2299 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/768/2/l28 2041

  36. [37]

    , keywords =

    A new classification system for galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/154452 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/154452

  37. [38]

    , keywords =

    Mass assembly and morphological transformations since z 3 from CANDELS. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1866 , archivePrefix =. 1606.04952 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1866

  38. [39]

    , keywords =

    Detection of Prominent Stellar Disks in the Progenitors of Present-day Massive Elliptical Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/75 , archivePrefix =. 1606.07571 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/75

  39. [40]

    INSPIRE: INvestigating Stellar Population In RElics. I. Survey presentation and pilot study. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038936 , archivePrefix =. 2011.05347 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038936 2011

  40. [41]

    2014, ApJL, 780, L20, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/780/2/L20

    NGC 1277: A Massive Compact Relic Galaxy in the Nearby Universe. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/780/2/L20 , archivePrefix =. 1310.6367 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/780/2/l20 2041

  41. [42]

    2012 , month = apr, journal =

    Young ages and other intriguing properties of massive compact galaxies in the local Universe. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20897.x , archivePrefix =. 1203.2623 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20897.x 2012

  42. [43]

    , keywords =

    Panic! at the Disks: First Rest-frame Optical Observations of Galaxy Structure at z > 3 with JWST in the SMACS 0723 Field. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac947c , archivePrefix =. 2207.09428 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac947c 2041

  43. [44]

    , keywords =

    Morphology of Galaxies in JWST Fields: Initial Distribution and Evolution of Galaxy Morphology. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad3448 , archivePrefix =. 2312.04899 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad3448

  44. [45]

    , keywords =

    Galaxy morphology from z 6 through the lens of JWST. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346800 , archivePrefix =. 2305.02478 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346800

  45. [46]

    P., 1926, @doi [ ] 10.1086/143018 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926ApJ....64..321H 64, 321

    Extragalactic nebulae. , year = 1926, month = dec, volume =. doi:10.1086/143018 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1086/143018 1926

  46. [47]

    Resolving Quiescent Galaxies at z 2. II. Direct Measures of Rotational Support. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aacd4f , archivePrefix =. 1806.06815 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aacd4f

  47. [48]

    , keywords =

    Fast rotators at cosmic noon: Stellar kinematics for 15 quiescent galaxies from JWST-SUSPENSE. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202555812 , archivePrefix =. 2506.04310 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202555812

  48. [49]

    , keywords =

    The structural and dynamical properties of compact elliptical galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx732 , archivePrefix =. 1701.05898 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx732

  49. [50]

    , keywords =

    Compact, bulge-dominated structures of spectroscopically confirmed quiescent galaxies at z 3. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3766 , archivePrefix =. 2012.02766 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3766 2012

  50. [51]

    , keywords =

    The Majority of Compact Massive Galaxies at z -0.5ex 2 are Disk Dominated. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/730/1/38 , archivePrefix =. 1101.2423 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/730/1/38

  51. [52]

    The Outer Disks of Early-type Galaxies. II. Surface-brightness Profiles of Unbarred Galaxies and Trends with Hubble Type. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/142/5/145 , archivePrefix =. 1108.3662 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-6256/142/5/145

  52. [53]

    , keywords =

    The environmental dependence of the structure of galactic discs in STAGES S0 galaxies: implications for S0 formation. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2536 , archivePrefix =. 1412.3167 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2536

  53. [54]

    , keywords =

    Varied origins of up-bending breaks in galaxy disks. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935130 , archivePrefix =. 1903.09384 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935130 1903

  54. [55]

    , keywords =

    A Revised Parallel-sequence Morphological Classification of Galaxies: Structure and Formation of S0 and Spheroidal Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/198/1/2 , archivePrefix =. 1110.4384 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0067-0049/198/1/2

  55. [56]

    The Optical and Near-Infrared Properties of Galaxies. I. Luminosity and Stellar Mass Functions. , keywords =. doi:10.1086/378847 , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0302543 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1086/378847

  56. [57]

    , keywords =

    Structural and stellar-population properties versus bulge types in Sloan Digital Sky Survey central galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa328 , archivePrefix =. 1908.08055 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa328 1908

  57. [58]

    , keywords =

    A catalog of polychromatic bulge-disc decompositions of 17.600 galaxies in CANDELS. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1379 , archivePrefix =. 1803.10234 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1379

  58. [59]

    , keywords =

    _ SFR -M _ * Diagram: A Valuable Galaxy Evolution Diagnostic to Complement (s)SFR-M _ * Diagrams. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad04db , archivePrefix =. 2310.11493 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad04db

  59. [60]

    , keywords =

    The structural properties of classical bulges and discs from z 2. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2421 , archivePrefix =. 1902.04089 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2421 1902

  60. [61]

    2012 , month = apr, journal =

    The morphologies of massive galaxies at 1 < z < 3 in the CANDELS-UDS field: compact bulges, and the rise and fall of massive discs. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.22087.x , archivePrefix =. 1206.4322 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.22087.x 2012

  61. [62]

    2008 , month = jan, journal =

    The SAURON project - IX. A kinematic classification for early-type galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11752.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0703531 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11752.x 2007

  62. [63]

    , archivePrefix = "arXiv", eprint =

    The ATLAS ^ 3D project - VII. A new look at the morphology of nearby galaxies: the kinematic morphology-density relation. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18600.x , archivePrefix =. 1104.3545 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18600.x 2011

  63. [64]

    2008 , month = jan, journal =

    The stellar mass distribution in early-type disc galaxies: surface photometry and bulge-disc decompositions. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11532.x , archivePrefix =. astro-ph/0701730 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11532.x 2007

  64. [65]

    and Wilkinson, M

    Structural properties of pseudo-bulges, classical bulges and elliptical galaxies: a Sloan Digital Sky Survey perspective. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14257.x , archivePrefix =. 0810.1953 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14257.x 2008

  65. [66]

    , keywords =

    Bulge Growth and Quenching since z = 2.5 in CANDELS/3D-HST. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/788/1/11 , archivePrefix =. 1402.0866 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/788/1/11

  66. [67]

    , keywords =

    The decomposed bulge and disc size-mass relations of massive galaxies at 1 < z < 3 in CANDELS. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1537 , archivePrefix =. 1405.5221 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1537

  67. [68]

    , keywords =

    Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): M\_star - R\_e relations of z = 0 bulges, discs and spheroids. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1495 , archivePrefix =. 1607.01096 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1495

  68. [69]

    , keywords =

    Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): bulge-disc decomposition of KiDS data in the nearby Universe. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2267 , archivePrefix =. 2208.07608 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2267

  69. [70]

    , keywords =

    Bulge-disc decomposition of the Hydra cluster galaxies in 12 bands. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3571 , archivePrefix =. 2311.09313 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3571

  70. [71]

    , keywords =

    Bulge+disc decomposition of HFF and CANDELS galaxies: UVJ diagrams and stellar mass-size relations of galaxy components at 0.2 z 1.5. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae1702 , archivePrefix =. 2406.14613 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae1702

  71. [72]

    , keywords =

    Massive compact quiescent galaxies in the M _ versus _ e plane: insights from stellar population properties. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae1213 , archivePrefix =. 2405.02348 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae1213

  72. [73]

    , keywords =

    SExtractor: Software for source extraction. , keywords =. doi:10.1051/aas:1996164 , adsurl =

    work page doi:10.1051/aas:1996164

  73. [74]

    , keywords =

    IMFIT: A Fast, Flexible New Program for Astronomical Image Fitting. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/799/2/226 , archivePrefix =. 1408.1097 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/799/2/226

  74. [75]

    The Carnegie-Irvine Galaxy Survey. III. The Three-component Structure of Nearby Elliptical Galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/766/1/47 , archivePrefix =. 1212.2639 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/766/1/47

  75. [76]

    Ho and Kosuke Imai and Gary King and Elizabeth A

    Daniel E. Ho and Kosuke Imai and Gary King and Elizabeth A. Stuart , journal =. 2011 , volume =

    work page 2011

  76. [77]

    P. R. Rosenbaum and D. B. Rubin. The Central Role of the Propensity Score in Observational Studies for Causal Effects. Biometrika. doi:10.1093/biomet/70.1.41

    work page doi:10.1093/biomet/70.1.41

  77. [78]

    , keywords =

    Is the cluster environment quenching the Seyfert activity in elliptical and spiral galaxies?. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1459 , archivePrefix =. 1603.06256 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1459

  78. [79]

    , keywords =

    Testing the Presence of Multiple Photometric Components in Nearby Early-type Galaxies using SDSS. , keywords =. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/115 , archivePrefix =. 1612.06495 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/115

  79. [80]

    , keywords =

    Parametrizing the stellar haloes of galaxies. , keywords =. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1194 , archivePrefix =. 1404.2123 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1194

  80. [81]

    2012 , month = apr, journal =

    Surprises in image decomposition of edge-on galaxies: does Sombrero have a (classical) bulge?. , keywords =. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20925.x , archivePrefix =. 1101.2900 , primaryClass =

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20925.x 2012

Showing first 80 references.