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arxiv: 2606.25995 · v1 · pith:6NKX7V7Xnew · submitted 2026-06-24 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA · astro-ph.CO· astro-ph.SR

The evolution of the galaxy gas-phase mass-metallicity relation from z=15 to z=0 in the COLIBRE cosmological simulations

Piyush Sharda , Joop Schaye , Robert J. McGibbon , Alejandro Ben\'itez-Llambay , Evgenii Chaikin , Carlos S. Frenk , Jacqueline Hodge , Filip Hu\v{s}ko
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Sylvia Ploeckinger Alexander J. Richings Matthieu Schaller
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Pith reviewed 2026-06-25 19:50 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA astro-ph.COastro-ph.SR
keywords mass-metallicity relationgalaxy evolutioncosmological simulationssupernova feedbackAGN feedbackinterstellar mediummetal enrichmentredshift evolution
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The pith

The COLIBRE simulations show the galaxy mass-metallicity relation is already in place at redshift 10 and shows no evolution until redshift 5.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

COLIBRE cosmological hydrodynamical simulations follow the gas-phase mass-metallicity relation of star-forming galaxies from redshift 15 to the present day. The runs incorporate a multiphase interstellar medium that cools to 10 K, non-equilibrium chemistry for hydrogen and helium, metal diffusion, and a live dust model. These features allow the simulations to match observed relations across all redshifts despite uncertainties in oxygen abundance measurements. The relation forms early at z approximately 10, stays flat until z approximately 5, then develops a shallower slope at lower redshifts.

Core claim

In the COLIBRE simulations the galaxy gas-phase mass-metallicity relation is already in place at cosmic dawn (z approximately 10) and exhibits no evolution until z approximately 5. The relation is reproduced across the full stellar mass range sampled by observations at all redshifts, with the slope becoming shallower at low redshifts. The high-mass end turnover is set primarily by AGN feedback, while the low-mass end depends on core-collapse supernova feedback. Variations in star formation efficiency or oxygen depletion on dust grains have smaller effects.

What carries the argument

The mass-weighted gas-phase mass-metallicity relation for star-forming galaxies, which encodes the competition between metal production in stars and removal or dilution by feedback.

If this is right

  • The mass-metallicity relation exhibits no significant evolution between redshifts 10 and 5.
  • AGN feedback largely sets the turnover at the high-mass end of the relation.
  • Core-collapse supernova feedback controls the slope at the low-mass end.
  • The simulated relation shows numerical convergence across particle masses from 10^5 to 10^7 solar masses and box sizes from 25 to 400 comoving megaparsecs.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Metal enrichment must proceed rapidly in the first galaxies to produce the observed relation by redshift 10.
  • Observations targeting low-mass galaxies at redshifts 5 to 10 could test the strength of supernova feedback assumed in the model.
  • The inclusion of live dust opens the possibility of predicting how dust depletion alters inferred metallicities in high-redshift observations.

Load-bearing premise

The fiducial COLIBRE model of the multiphase interstellar medium, non-equilibrium chemistry, metal diffusion, and live dust accurately represents the physical processes that set gas-phase metallicities.

What would settle it

A measurement of strong evolution in the mass-metallicity relation between redshift 10 and redshift 5 at low stellar masses would contradict the reported lack of evolution.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.25995 by Alejandro Ben\'itez-Llambay, Alexander J. Richings, Carlos S. Frenk, Evgenii Chaikin, Filip Hu\v{s}ko, Jacqueline Hodge, Joop Schaye, Matthieu Schaller, Piyush Sharda, Robert J. McGibbon, Sylvia Ploeckinger.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: Face-on projections within a 50 comoving kpc volume of the gas-phase metallicity (left half of the image in each redshift panel) and integrated stellar light (right half of the image) as would be seen through near-IR JWST filters across cosmic time in a representative massive spiral galaxy from the COLIBRE L025m5 simulation. The metallicity scale is depicted in the top left panel, and stretches from 0.05 Z… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Left panel: Number density of star-forming COLIBRE galaxies as a function of stellar mass, measured in 0.1 dex mass bins and normalized by the simulation volume, at different redshifts in the L200m6 simulation. Increasingly darker shades of orange correspond to distributions at higher redshifts. The vertical hard cutoff at the low mass end in the distributions arises from only selecting galaxies with ≥ 10 … view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Evolution of the median gas-phase mass-metallicity relation (MZR) of star-forming galaxies across cosmic time in the COLIBRE simulations at three different mass resolutions: m5 (light blue), m6 (orange), m7 (red). COLIBRE curves transition from solid to dotted if the number of galaxies drops below 20 in a given stellar mass bin, or if the resolution limit is reached (< 10 star particles per galaxy). Shaded… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Gas-phase metallicity as a function of stellar mass for all re￾solved 𝑧 = 11 − 15 star-forming galaxies in the COLIBRE simulations. The smoothed, simulation volume-weighted 2D histogram includes star-forming galaxies at these redshifts at all three resolutions (m5, m6, m7). The contours depict the 1𝜎 and 2𝜎 regions for the galaxy number density distribution per dex stellar mass per dex metallicity. White s… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Same as [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Evolution of the MZR with redshift in galaxies within different stellar mass bins per row (𝑀★ ≈ 107 , 108 , 109 , 1010 , 1011 M⊙), separated into three columns corresponding to different COLIBRE resolutions (m5, m6, m7). Shaded bands denote the 16th − 84th percentile ranges; the shaded bands are hatched for COLIBRE m6 and m7 in the top row to signify that they are affected by the resolution limit. Observat… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Schematic explaining how the free parameters in the broken power￾law model (equation 3) proposed by Curti et al. (2020) determine key aspects of the MZR. resolution, SIMBA predicts systematically lower metallicities than both COLIBRE and TNG 300. However, the simulation contains too few galaxies with 𝑀∗ ≈ 1011 M⊙ beyond 𝑧 ≈ 3 to enable a meaningful comparison with the available observations at higher redsh… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Left panel: Evolution of the median MZR in the COLIBRE L200m6 simulation at different redshifts (solid). Dashed and dotted lines represent broken power-law (BPL, equation 3) and single power-law (SPL, equation 4) fits to the MZRs, respectively. Right panels: Redshift evolution of the best-fit parameters (slope 𝛾, inflection 𝛽, saturation metallicity 𝑍0 and turnover mass 𝑀0) when the median MZRs in the left… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Effects of using different aperture sizes to measure the gas-phase metallicity on the MZR in the COLIBRE L200m6 simulation. Median MZRs from these COLIBRE simulations are shown for three aperture sizes (50 kpc, 3 kpc, and 1 kpc), indicated by progressively darker shades of orange. The shaded band indicates the 16th − 84th percentile range in the fiducial case. The meaning of solid and dotted COLIBRE curves… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: The effect of using a different density cut to select gas particles to obtain oxygen abundances. Median MZRs at 𝑧 = 0 from COLIBRE sim￾ulations at m6 resolution and box size 100 Mpc (L100m6) are shown for the different density cuts, indicated by progressively darker shades of orange. The gas temperature threshold remains the same in all the cases (𝑇 < 104.5 K). The shaded band indicates the 16th −84th per… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Impact of variations in the fiducial star formation model implemented in COLIBRE on the median MZR, for a smaller (50 Mpc) box at m7 resolution (L050m7). The fiducial model is from the L400m7 simulation. 𝜖 is the star formation efficiency per freefall time, set to 0.01 in the fiducial model (Schaye et al. 2026, section 3.3). 7 8 9 10 11 log10 M /M 6 7 8 9 1 2 + lo g10 O / H z = 0 7 8 9 10 11 log10 M /M z … view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Impact of variations in the fiducial supernova feedback model implemented in COLIBRE on the median MZR, for a smaller (50 Mpc) box at m7 resolution (L050m7). The fiducial model is from the L400m7 simulation. Δ𝐸CCSN refers to the energy added to a star particle due to core collapse supernovae explosions within time Δ𝑡 (Schaye et al. 2026, section 3.7). in this work are largely insensitive to the selection … view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Impact of AGN feedback on the median MZR in the COLIBRE simulations at m7 resolution. The fiducial model is plotted for the L400m7 box whereas the model without AGN feedback is for the L050m7 box. Notice that axes limits differ from those in other plots. 9 10 11 log10 M /M 8.0 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 9.0 9.2 1 2 + lo g10 O / H z = 0 9 10 11 log10 M /M z = 1 Thermal AGN Feedback [Fiducial] Hybrid AGN Feedback 9 10… view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Impact of the mode of AGN feedback (thermal versus hybrid) on the median MZR in the COLIBRE simulations of box size 100 Mpc at m6 resolution (L100m6). The fiducial thermal feedback model only injects thermal energy from AGN into the surroundings, whereas the hybrid feedback model injects both thermal and kinetic jet energy (see Section 4.2.3 for more details). Notice that axes limits differ from those in … view at source ↗
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Median fraction of oxygen that is depleted onto dust grains, 𝑓O,depl, as a function of galaxy stellar mass, at different redshifts in the COLIBRE L200m6 simulation. 8 9 10 11 log10 M /M 7.75 8.00 8.25 8.50 8.75 9.00 1 2 + lo g10 O / H z = 0 z = 3 Diffuse Oxygen [Fiducial] Total Oxygen [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p020_16.png] view at source ↗
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: MZR for the L200m6 COLIBRE simulation at 𝑧 = 0 (solid) and 𝑧 = 3 (dashed), showing the impact of ignoring oxygen depletion onto dust grains. The darker shade of orange corresponds to the total oxygen abundance (gas+dust) whereas the lighter shade corresponds to the fiducial MZR that only takes the abundance of oxygen in the gas-phase into account. more efficient dust production and growth in their ISM. At… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

We present the evolution of the galaxy gas-phase mass-metallicity relation (MZR) from $z=15$ to $z=0$ in the COLIBRE cosmological hydrodynamical simulations. Amongst other novel features, COLIBRE follows the multiphase interstellar medium with gas allowed to cool to $\sim 10\,\mathrm{K}$, and includes a new chemistry model in which hydrogen and helium are tracked in non-equilibrium, metals are allowed to mix and diffuse, and the chemical network is coupled to a self-consistent live dust model. Using fiducial COLIBRE runs spanning particle masses from $10^5\,\mathrm{M_{\odot}}$ to $10^7\,\mathrm{M_{\odot}}$ and box sizes $25 - 400\,\mathrm{cMpc}$, we derive the median, mass-weighted MZRs for star-forming galaxies and compare them with a comprehensive compilation of observational data and other simulations. COLIBRE reproduces the observed MZR across cosmic time, notwithstanding the systematic uncertainties in observational measurements of the gas-phase oxygen abundances. The simulations show excellent numerical convergence and uniquely probe the full stellar mass range sampled by current observations across all redshifts. We find that the MZR is already in place at cosmic dawn ($z \approx 10$), and shows no evolution until $z \approx 5$. The slope of the MZR becomes shallower at low redshifts. The turnover at the high-mass end is largely governed by feedback from active galactic nuclei (AGN), whereas the low-mass end of the MZR sensitively depends on the strength of feedback from core collapse supernovae. Variations in the star formation efficiency or depletion of oxygen on dust grains have a more minor impact on the MZR. We identify key physical processes that shape the MZR across cosmic time and highlight where future observations can further constrain galaxy formation models.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

0 major / 3 minor

Summary. The paper presents the evolution of the galaxy gas-phase mass-metallicity relation (MZR) from z=15 to z=0 using the COLIBRE cosmological hydrodynamical simulations. These runs incorporate a multiphase ISM cooling to ~10 K, non-equilibrium H/He chemistry, metal diffusion, and a self-consistent live dust model. Across fiducial runs with particle masses 10^5-10^7 M⊙ and box sizes 25-400 cMpc, the median mass-weighted MZRs for star-forming galaxies are shown to reproduce observational compilations at all redshifts. The MZR is already established at z≈10 with no evolution to z≈5; the slope shallows at low z. High-mass turnover is attributed to AGN feedback and low-mass end to core-collapse SN feedback, with star-formation efficiency and dust depletion having minor effects. Numerical convergence is reported as excellent.

Significance. If the central results hold, the work provides a valuable, high-dynamic-range simulation benchmark for the MZR across cosmic time, enabled by the new ISM and chemistry modules. Explicit convergence across resolution and volume, plus targeted feedback variations, strengthen the attribution of MZR features to specific physical processes. This can inform both observational interpretations and future model development, particularly where the simulations uniquely cover the full observed stellar-mass range at high redshift.

minor comments (3)
  1. [Abstract, §3] Abstract and §3: the statement that the MZR 'shows no evolution until z≈5' would benefit from an explicit quantitative definition (e.g., change in normalization or slope below a stated threshold) and a figure showing the redshift-dependent parameters.
  2. [§4] The comparison to observations notes 'systematic uncertainties in observational measurements' but does not specify which abundance calibrations or diagnostics are adopted for the simulated oxygen abundances; a short table or paragraph reconciling the two would improve clarity.
  3. [Figures 2-5] Figure captions and text should explicitly state whether the plotted MZRs are mass-weighted or luminosity-weighted and how star-forming galaxies are selected (e.g., sSFR threshold).

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

0 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their positive assessment of the manuscript, including the recognition that it provides a valuable high-dynamic-range benchmark for the MZR across cosmic time, enabled by the new ISM and chemistry modules, with explicit convergence tests and targeted feedback variations strengthening the physical attributions. The recommendation for minor revision is noted. No specific major comments were listed in the report for us to address point by point.

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; results are direct simulation outputs compared to external data

full rationale

The paper derives the MZR by running COLIBRE hydrodynamical simulations with explicit multiphase ISM, non-equilibrium chemistry, metal diffusion, and live dust physics, then measures median mass-weighted relations in star-forming galaxies across redshifts and compares them to independent observational compilations. No parameters are fitted to MZR data (variations in AGN/SN feedback, star-formation efficiency, and dust depletion are sensitivity tests, not fits), no self-citations justify core premises or uniqueness theorems, and no ansatzes or renamings reduce the reported evolution to inputs by construction. The claim that the MZR is in place at z≈10 with limited evolution to z≈5 is an emergent output, not a redefinition of the simulation setup. This is a standard, self-contained simulation-vs-observation comparison.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

Abstract-only review supplies insufficient detail to enumerate free parameters, axioms, or invented entities; full text required for complete audit.

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