pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2604.09211 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-10 · 🌌 astro-ph.HE · astro-ph.GA· astro-ph.SR

Recognition: unknown

The evolution of the mid-infrared spectrum of SN 1987A observed with the JWST/MIRI-MRS

P. J. Kavanagh , M. J. Barlow , C. Fransson , J. Larsson , M. Matsuura , B. Sargent , O. C. Jones , M. Meixner
show 14 more authors
R. Wesson J. A. D. L. Blommaert P. Bouchet A. Coulais R. Gastaud R. D. Gehrz N. Habel A. S. Hirschauer J. Jaspers R. P. Kirschner L. Lenkic O. Nayak S. Rosu T. Temim
Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-10 17:18 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.HE astro-ph.GAastro-ph.SR
keywords SN 1987Amid-infrared spectroscopyejectareverse shockH2 emissionequatorial ringJWST MIRIdust evolution
0
0 comments X

The pith

SN 1987A's dense Fe-rich ejecta has reached the reverse shock.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

A second epoch of JWST mid-IR spectroscopy of SN 1987A one year after the first reveals the temporal evolution of its components. The equatorial ring dust continuum shows little change overall, but spatial analysis indicates the inner ring is fading while outer regions brighten. Ejecta emission lines are evolving rapidly from the interaction with the ring, and mid-IR H2 emission from the ejecta is detected for the first time. [Fe II] line diagnostics suggest the dense inner Fe-rich ejecta has now reached the reverse shock. This provides a rare opportunity to observe the live interaction in a nearby supernova remnant.

Core claim

The paper establishes that the dense inner Fe-rich ejecta of SN 1987A has now reached the reverse shock. This is based on the first identification of mid-IR H2 emission associated with the ejecta and the application of near- and mid-IR [Fe II] lines as density and temperature diagnostics of the ejecta in the interaction region.

What carries the argument

The near- and mid-infrared [Fe II] emission lines serving as density and temperature diagnostics for the ejecta in the ejecta-equatorial ring interaction region.

Load-bearing premise

The spatial and spectral decomposition cleanly separates the contributions from the equatorial ring dust, the ejecta, and the shocks without contamination.

What would settle it

Independent measurements of ejecta density or temperature from other lines or wavelengths that contradict the [Fe II] diagnostics, or the absence of H2 emission in deeper observations.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.09211 by A. Coulais, A. S. Hirschauer, B. Sargent, C. Fransson, J. A. D. L. Blommaert, J. Jaspers, J. Larsson, L. Lenkic, M. J. Barlow, M. Matsuura, M. Meixner, N. Habel, O. C. Jones, O. Nayak, P. Bouchet, P. J. Kavanagh, R. D. Gehrz, R. Gastaud, R. P. Kirschner, R. Wesson, S. Rosu, T. Temim.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1 [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p003_1.png] view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Sample slices from the MIRI/MRS sub-band cubes from Cycles 1 (Day 12927) and 2 (Day 13311), with the band labels shown in the top-left. The white lines in each pane represent 1.0 ′′ to highlight the increasing size of the FOV (shown by the white dashed lines), as well as the decreasing spatial resolution from channels 1 to 4. ‘Star 3’ is visible to the lower left of the ER in bands 1A–2A. The benefit of ha… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: Example of the effect of PSF broadening in chan￾nel 1 using the [Ar ii] 6.99 µm line. The images in the left column are from Cycle 1 and the right from Cycle 2. The top panel in each is the cube constructed in sky coordinates, i.e., RA and Dec. The bottom panels in each show the cubes constructed in the MIRI/MRS IFU local coordinate system (α, β). The arrows are included to highlight the direction of broad… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Top row: The spectral extraction regions for the cardinal point and ejecta spectra plotted on the Cycle 2 (Day 13311) cubes. Bottom row: Same as top but for the interaction regions. The polygons at the top and bottom of the ER are the north and south interaction regions, respectively, while the circle represents the mid-north region. In both rows, the location of the outer rings is shown by the two faded e… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: The evolution of the MIR spectrum of SN 1987A. The MIRI/MRS Day 12927 and 13311 spectra are shown in red and yellow, respectively. All other spectra are from Spitzer/IRS with the corresponding days since explosion shown in the legend. The MIRI/MRS spectra are cut off at 27 µm as the quality of the flux calibration begins to degrade beyond this limit (Law et al. 2024). 2022), though may not be the actual co… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: The continuum brightness evolution maps between Days 12927 and 13311 for four continuum regions, chosen to highlight specific spectral features (see Sect. 3.1 for details). The hot dust component is shown on top-left with the 10 µm and 20 µm silicate features on the top-right and bottom-left, respectively, with the 30–70 µm excess, traced in the 24–27 µm wavelength range, shown in bottom-right. Dust contin… view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Broadband dust continuum fits to the total spectrum of SN 1987A at Days 12927 (left column) and 13311 (right column). The top row shows the fits for Case 1 (two-component astrodust), the middle row shows Case 2 (astronomical silicates+amorphous C), and the bottom row shows Case 3 which includes the astronomical silicates component to represent the 30-70 µm excess (amorphous C+astrodust+astronomical silicat… view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Comparison of our model fits to the Day 12927 MIRI/MRS total spectra to the SOFIA 31.5 µm flux measured at Day 10732, denoted by the purple filled circle with associated error bar. The best fit for our Case 1 (two-component astrodust), and Case 3 (amorphous C+astrodust+astronomical silicates) are shown on the top and bottom, respectively. The color of each component is indicated in the legends. Best fit mo… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Assessment of composition and shape distribu￾tions. Top: The calculated mass absorption coefficients (κ) for astronomical silicates (Mie in red, CDE in blue) of Draine & Lee (1984) and O-rich CSM (Mie in green, CDE in orange) of Ossenkopf et al. (1992). Middle: The calculated κ values for astronomical silicates applied to a blackbody of temper￾ature 150 K (Mie in red, CDE in green), and the SN 1987A Day 1… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: The north, south, east and west extraction regions for the deconvolved and reprojected sub-band data cubes. Hot Warm Day T M T M (K) (10−8 M⊙) (K) (10−6 M⊙) North 12927 431 (±8) 0.35 (±0.05) 150 (±2) 2.82 (±0.05) 13311 421 (±5) 0.25 (±0.07) 157 (±2) 2.26 (±0.07) East 12927 391 (±5) 0.81 (±0.03) 144 (±2) 6.00 (±0.08) 13311 391 (±4) 0.65 (±0.08) 149 (±1) 4.99 (±0.10) South 12927 397 (±6) 0.65 (±0.02) 148 (±… view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Extracted spectra from sub-regions of the ER on Days 12927 (left) and 13311 (right), with north in blue, east in orange, south in green, and west in magenta. The location of the spectral extraction regions are shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_12.png] view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Evolution of dust components derived from Case 1 model fits in the sub-regions of the ER between Days 12927 and 13311. The hot component is on the left and the warm component on the right. Dust masses and temperatures are shown on the top and bottom rows, respectively. In each panel, north in shown in blue, east in orange, south in green, and west in magenta. to those of the more highly ionized species, i… view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Evolution in surface brightness between Days 12927 and 13311 for selected emission lines which show changes in surface brightness in some or all of the cardinal point regions. The velocity ranges have been restricted to only show the emission components associated with the ER. The H i+He i 6-5 7.45 µm line is shown on the left and the [Ne ii] 12.81 µm line on the right. Dust continuum contours are shown b… view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Profiles of the six identified H2 lines at both Days 12927 and 13311 extracted from the ‘mid north’ region. Radial velocities are with respect to the SN 1987A frame, defined by Gr¨oningsson et al. (2008) as corresponding to +286.7 km s−1 heliocentric [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p023_15.png] view at source ↗
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: Continuum subtracted maps from identified H2 lines. Left: Map of the H2 1-0 S(1) 2.122 µm line extracted from NIRSpec/IFU data (Larsson et al. 2025). The contours of the [Ar ii] 6.99 µm line associated with the compact object are shown in white for reference. Middle: Same as left, for H2 0-0 S(5) 6.9091 µm, with the adjacent continuum indicated by the dark blue contours at 2σ, 3σ, and 5σ. The continuum wa… view at source ↗
Figure 17
Figure 17. Figure 17: Evolution in surface brightness between Days 12927 and 13311 for the three brightest lines in the interaction regions, [Fe ii] 5.34 µm (left), [Ar ii] 6.99 µm (middle), [Ne ii] 12.81 µm (right). The velocity ranges have been restricted to only show the emission components associated with the interaction regions. Dust continuum contours are shown by the dark gray lines in each panel at 1σ, 3σ, and 5σ above… view at source ↗
Figure 18
Figure 18. Figure 18: Selected line profiles at Days 12927 (blue) and 13311 (orange) in the northern (left column) and southern (right column) interaction regions. The emission lines are identified in the top left of each panel. In the case of the [Fe II] 25.99 µm line, the [O IV] 25.89 µm line which is unrelated to the interaction is also indicated. Radial velocities are with respect to the SN 1987A frame, defined by Gr¨oning… view at source ↗
Figure 19
Figure 19. Figure 19: Normalized profiles of broad, highly blue- or red-shifted emission lines. All lines from the northern interaction region are shown on the top row, [Fe ii] emission lines from the southern interaction region in the middle row, and bright [Fe II] 5.34 µm and bright [Ar II] 6.99 µm detected in the southern interaction region (bottom row) at Days 12927 (left column) and 13311 (right column). The species are i… view at source ↗
Figure 20
Figure 20. Figure 20: Line ratios of the most important diagnostic [Fe ii] lines as a function of electron density, ne, and for temperatures of 103 − 2 × 104 K. Observed line ratios are shown as solid horizontal lines, including errors (dashed lines). The three different groups of figures show the effect of varying the total Fe abundance, X(Fe) [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p029_20.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Supernova (SN) 1987A provides a unique laboratory for investigating many aspects of SN physics and evolution. An observation at Day 12927 (35.4 yr) since the explosion with the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) Medium Resolution Spectrometer (MRS) on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) provided the first spatially resolved spectroscopic study of SN 1987A in the mid-IR, yielding insights into the evolution of dust, the ejecta, the equatorial ring (ER), and shocks in the system. Here we present a second epoch with MIRI/MRS at Day 13311 (36.4 yr) allowing the mid-IR spatially resolved spectroscopic temporal evolution of SN 1987A to be probed for the first time. Analysis of the ER-dominated dust continuum showed little evolution between Days 12927 and 13311. However, a spatial analysis reveals the inner ER to be fading while the outermost regions are brightening. Broad ejecta emission lines detected at Day 12927 are evolving rapidly, driven by the recent onset of the ejecta/equatorial ring interaction in the northeast and southwest of the ER. Most lines from the ER show no change during the 384 days between the epochs, though some such as [Ne II] and [Ar II] have faded. We identify mid-IR H2 emission associated with the ejecta for the first time. Using the near- and mid-IR [Fe II] lines as density and temperature diagnostics of the ejecta in the interaction region we find it likely that the dense inner Fe-rich ejecta has now reached the reverse shock. Continued monitoring of SN 1987A is essential to observe the evolving ejecta/ER interaction and dust components.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. This manuscript reports the second epoch of JWST/MIRI-MRS mid-infrared spectroscopy of SN 1987A at day 13311 (36.4 yr post-explosion), compared to the prior epoch at day 12927. It finds little change in the ER-dominated dust continuum but spatial evolution within the ER (inner fading, outer brightening), rapid changes in broad ejecta lines driven by ejecta/ER interaction in the northeast and southwest, the first identification of mid-IR H2 emission associated with the ejecta, and—via near- and mid-IR [Fe II] line ratios as density/temperature diagnostics—concludes that the dense inner Fe-rich ejecta has likely reached the reverse shock.

Significance. If the component separations hold, the work supplies the first mid-IR temporal baseline on SN 1987A's ejecta/ER interaction, dust evolution, and shock conditions, strengthening its role as a laboratory for supernova remnant physics. The new H2 detection and [Fe II] diagnostics add multi-wavelength constraints that can be tested against hydrodynamic models.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract and [Fe II] diagnostics section] Abstract and the section on [Fe II] diagnostics: the inference that dense inner Fe-rich ejecta has reached the reverse shock rests on [Fe II] line ratios yielding n_e ~ 10^4–10^5 cm^{-3} and T ~ 10^3–10^4 K in the interaction region. No quantitative residuals from ER template subtraction are shown at the [Fe II] wavelengths, nor are tests presented for blending with ER [Fe II], [Ne II], or dust features given the MIRI-MRS PSF and velocity overlap; if residuals exceed the line contrast, the derived parameters no longer trace the inner ejecta.
  2. [Ejecta line evolution section] Section on broad ejecta line evolution: the claim of rapid evolution in broad ejecta lines over the 384-day baseline is central to the interaction onset narrative, yet the manuscript provides neither tabulated line fluxes with uncertainties nor a quantitative assessment of how much the changes exceed measurement noise or possible subtraction artifacts.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] The abstract states that 'some such as [Ne II] and [Ar II] have faded' without reporting the fractional change or statistical significance; adding these values would strengthen the no-evolution claim for most ER lines.
  2. [Data reduction and analysis section] Spatial extraction regions for the interaction zone and ER template should be defined with explicit aperture sizes and position angles to enable independent verification of the decompositions.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their careful and constructive review of our manuscript. We address each major comment below and have revised the manuscript to provide the requested quantitative details and validations.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract and [Fe II] diagnostics section] Abstract and the section on [Fe II] diagnostics: the inference that dense inner Fe-rich ejecta has reached the reverse shock rests on [Fe II] line ratios yielding n_e ~ 10^4–10^5 cm^{-3} and T ~ 10^3–10^4 K in the interaction region. No quantitative residuals from ER template subtraction are shown at the [Fe II] wavelengths, nor are tests presented for blending with ER [Fe II], [Ne II], or dust features given the MIRI-MRS PSF and velocity overlap; if residuals exceed the line contrast, the derived parameters no longer trace the inner ejecta.

    Authors: We thank the referee for this important observation on the robustness of our diagnostics. In the revised manuscript we have added a figure showing the quantitative residuals from ER template subtraction at the [Fe II] wavelengths. We have also included explicit tests for blending with ER [Fe II], [Ne II], and dust features that account for the MIRI-MRS PSF and velocity overlap. These additions confirm that residuals remain well below the observed line contrasts, so the derived n_e and T values continue to trace the dense inner Fe-rich ejecta. The abstract and [Fe II] diagnostics section have been updated to incorporate these results. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Ejecta line evolution section] Section on broad ejecta line evolution: the claim of rapid evolution in broad ejecta lines over the 384-day baseline is central to the interaction onset narrative, yet the manuscript provides neither tabulated line fluxes with uncertainties nor a quantitative assessment of how much the changes exceed measurement noise or possible subtraction artifacts.

    Authors: We agree that tabulated fluxes and a quantitative noise assessment are required to substantiate the rapid-evolution claim. The revised manuscript now contains a table of measured broad-ejecta line fluxes with uncertainties for both epochs. We have also added a statistical comparison demonstrating that the observed changes exceed the combined measurement noise and subtraction-artifact uncertainties by several sigma. These revisions strengthen the evidence for the onset of ejecta/ER interaction and have been incorporated into the ejecta line evolution section. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; observational analysis uses independent atomic diagnostics

full rationale

The paper reports new JWST/MIRI-MRS spectra of SN 1987A at two epochs and performs line identification plus spatial/spectral decomposition. The central inference that dense Fe-rich ejecta has reached the reverse shock rests on applying standard [Fe II] line-ratio diagnostics (density and temperature) drawn from atomic physics, combined with prior multi-wavelength knowledge of the remnant. No equations, parameters, or predictions are fitted to the present dataset and then re-used as outputs; component separation relies on established templates rather than self-referential fitting. No self-citation chains, ansatzes smuggled via prior work, or renamings of known results appear as load-bearing steps. The derivation chain is therefore self-contained against external benchmarks.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claims rest on standard astrophysical assumptions about line formation, component separation, and diagnostic applicability rather than new free parameters or invented entities.

axioms (2)
  • domain assumption The observed mid-IR features can be attributed to specific physical components (ER dust continuum, ejecta lines, ER lines) based on wavelength, spatial distribution, and prior knowledge of SN 1987A.
    Underpins the spatial analysis and line evolution statements.
  • domain assumption [Fe II] lines serve as reliable density and temperature diagnostics for the ejecta in the interaction region.
    Directly used to infer that dense inner Fe-rich ejecta has reached the reverse shock.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5757 in / 1480 out tokens · 100403 ms · 2026-05-10T17:18:19.269506+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

79 extracted references · 70 canonical work pages · 1 internal anchor

  1. [1]

    , " * write output.state after.block = add.period write newline

    ENTRY address archivePrefix author booktitle chapter doi edition editor eprint howpublished institution journal key month number organization pages publisher school series title misctitle type volume year version url label extra.label sort.label short.list INTEGERS output.state before.all mid.sentence after.sentence after.block FUNCTION init.state.consts ...

  2. [2]

    write newline

    " write newline "" before.all 'output.state := FUNCTION format.url url empty "" new.block "" url * "" * if FUNCTION format.eprint eprint empty "" archivePrefix empty "" archivePrefix "arXiv" = new.block " " eprint * " " * new.block " " eprint * " " * if if if FUNCTION format.doi doi empty "" " " doi * " " * if FUNCTION format.pid doi empty eprint empty ur...

  3. [3]

    flux densities

    thebibliography [1] 20pt to REFERENCES 6pt =0pt -12pt 10pt plus 3pt =0pt =0pt =1pt plus 1pt =0pt =0pt -12pt =13pt plus 1pt =20pt =13pt plus 1pt \@M =10000 =-1.0em =0pt =0pt 0pt =0pt =1.0em @enumiv\@empty 10000 10000 `\.\@m \@noitemerr \@latex@warning Empty `thebibliography' environment \@ifnextchar \@reference \@latexerr Missing key on reference command E...

    work page doi:10.5281/zenodo.831784 2021

  4. [4]

    G., Dwek , E., Bouchet , P., et al

    Arendt , R. G., Dwek , E., Bouchet , P., et al. 2016, , 151, 62, 10.3847/0004-6256/151/3/62

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-6256/151/3/62 2016

  5. [5]

    2020, , 890, 2, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab660f

    ---. 2020, , 890, 2, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab660f

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab660f 2020

  6. [6]

    G., Boyer , M

    Arendt , R. G., Boyer , M. L., Dwek , E., et al. 2023, , 959, 95, 10.3847/1538-4357/acfd95

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acfd95 2023

  7. [7]

    R., et al

    Argyriou , I., Glasse , A., Law , D. R., et al. 2023, , 675, A111, 10.1051/0004-6361/202346489

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346489 2023

  8. [8]

    The Astronomical Journal , author =

    Astropy Collaboration , Price-Whelan , A. M., Sip o cz , B. M., et al. 2018, , 156, 123, 10.3847/1538-3881/aabc4f

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aabc4f 2018

  9. [9]

    The Astropy Project: Sustaining and Growing a Community-oriented Open-source Project and the Latest Major Release (v5.0) of the Core Package

    Astropy Collaboration , Price-Whelan , A. M., Lim , P. L., et al. 2022, , 935, 167, 10.3847/1538-4357/ac7c74

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac7c74 2022

  10. [10]

    R., & Ballance , C

    Badnell , N. R., & Ballance , C. P. 2014, , 785, 99, 10.1088/0004-637X/785/2/99

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/785/2/99 2014

  11. [11]

    R., & Robinson , D

    Bevington , P. R., & Robinson , D. K. 2003, Data reduction and error analysis for the physical sciences

    2003

  12. [12]

    M., Suntzeff , N

    Bouchet , P., De Buizer , J. M., Suntzeff , N. B., et al. 2004, , 611, 394, 10.1086/421936

    work page doi:10.1086/421936 2004

  13. [13]

    M., Suntzeff , N

    Bouchet , P., Phillips , M. M., Suntzeff , N. B., et al. 1991, , 245, 490

    1991

  14. [14]

    2006, , 650, 212, 10.1086/505929

    Bouchet , P., Dwek , E., Danziger , J., et al. 2006, , 650, 212, 10.1086/505929

    work page doi:10.1086/505929 2006

  15. [15]

    2024, , 965, 51, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad2770

    Bouchet , P., Gastaud , R., Coulais , A., et al. 2024, , 965, 51, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad2770

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad2770 2024

  16. [16]

    P., Angeretti L., Leitherer C., Sirianni M., 2008, AJ, 135, 1900 Annibali F., et al., 2017, ApJ, 843, 20 Arnaboldi M., Freeman K

    Bradley, L., Sipőcz, B., Robitaille, T., et al. 2022 a , astropy/photutils: 1.5.0, 1.5.0, Zenodo, 10.5281/zenodo.6825092

    work page doi:10.5281/zenodo.6825092 2022

  17. [17]

    2022 b , astropy/regions: v0.7, v0.7, Zenodo, 10.5281/zenodo.7259631

    Bradley, L., Deil, C., Ginsburg, A., et al. 2022 b , astropy/regions: v0.7, v0.7, Zenodo, 10.5281/zenodo.7259631

    work page doi:10.5281/zenodo.7259631 2022

  18. [18]

    2023, JWST Calibration Pipeline, 1.9.5 Zenodo, doi: 10.5281/zenodo.7692609

    Bushouse , H., Eisenhamer , J., Dencheva , N., et al. 2023, JWST Calibration Pipeline , 1.9.5, Zenodo, Zenodo, 10.5281/zenodo.7692609

    work page doi:10.5281/zenodo.7692609 2023

  19. [19]

    M., Ng , C

    Cendes , Y., Gaensler , B. M., Ng , C. Y., et al. 2018, , 867, 65, 10.3847/1538-4357/aae261

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aae261 2018

  20. [20]

    L., et al

    Cigan , P., Matsuura , M., Gomez , H. L., et al. 2019, , 886, 51, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab4b46

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4b46 2019

  21. [21]

    C., & Hibbert , A

    Deb , N. C., & Hibbert , A. 2011, , 536, A74, 10.1051/0004-6361/201118059

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118059 2011

  22. [22]

    T., & Bertoldi , F

    Draine , B. T., & Bertoldi , F. 1996, , 468, 269, 10.1086/177689

    work page doi:10.1086/177689 1996

  23. [23]

    T., & Hensley , B

    Draine , B. T., & Hensley , B. S. 2021, , 909, 94, 10.3847/1538-4357/abd6c6

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abd6c6 2021

  24. [24]

    T., & Lee, H

    Draine , B. T., & Lee , H. M. 1984, , 285, 89, 10.1086/162480

    work page doi:10.1086/162480 1984

  25. [25]

    H., Glaccum , W., et al

    Dwek , E., Moseley , S. H., Glaccum , W., et al. 1992, , 389, L21, 10.1086/186339

    work page doi:10.1086/186339 1992

  26. [26]

    G., Bouchet , P., et al

    Dwek , E., Arendt , R. G., Bouchet , P., et al. 2010, , 722, 425, 10.1088/0004-637X/722/1/425

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/722/1/425 2010

  27. [27]

    2022, astropy/specutils: v1.9.1, v1.9.1, Zenodo, 10.5281/zenodo.7348235

    Earl, N., Tollerud, E., O'Steen, R., et al. 2022, astropy/specutils: v1.9.1, v1.9.1, Zenodo, 10.5281/zenodo.7348235

    work page doi:10.5281/zenodo.7348235 2022

  28. [28]

    V., et al

    France , K., McCray , R., Penton , S. V., et al. 2011, , 743, 186, 10.1088/0004-637X/743/2/186

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/743/2/186 2011

  29. [29]

    2016, , 821, L5, 10.3847/2041-8205/821/1/L5

    Fransson , C., Larsson , J., Spyromilio , J., et al. 2016, , 821, L5, 10.3847/2041-8205/821/1/L5

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8205/821/1/l5 2016

  30. [30]

    2013, , 768, 88, 10.1088/0004-637X/768/1/88

    ---. 2013, , 768, 88, 10.1088/0004-637X/768/1/88

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/768/1/88 2013

  31. [31]

    2015, , 806, L19, 10.1088/2041-8205/806/1/L19

    Fransson , C., Larsson , J., Migotto , K., et al. 2015, , 806, L19, 10.1088/2041-8205/806/1/L19

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/806/1/l19 2015

  32. [32]

    J., Kavanagh , P

    Fransson , C., Barlow , M. J., Kavanagh , P. J., et al. 2024, Science, 383, 898, 10.1126/science.adj5796

    work page doi:10.1126/science.adj5796 2024

  33. [33]

    D., & Ney , E

    Gehrz , R. D., & Ney , E. P. 1990, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 87, 4354, 10.1073/pnas.87.11.4354

    work page doi:10.1073/pnas.87.11.4354 1990

  34. [34]

    2008, , 492, 481, 10.1051/0004-6361:200810551

    Gr \"o ningsson , P., Fransson , C., Leibundgut , B., et al. 2008, , 492, 481, 10.1051/0004-6361:200810551

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810551 2008

  35. [35]

    S., & Draine, B

    Hensley , B. S., & Draine , B. T. 2023, , 948, 55, 10.3847/1538-4357/acc4c2

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acc4c2 2023

  36. [36]

    D., Murray , J., Mills , D., & Berry , D

    Howarth , I. D., Murray , J., Mills , D., & Berry , D. S. 2014, DIPSO: Spectrum analysis code , Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1405.016. 1405.016

    2014

  37. [37]

    2014, , 782, L2, 10.1088/2041-8205/782/1/L2

    Indebetouw , R., Matsuura , M., Dwek , E., et al. 2014, , 782, L2, 10.1088/2041-8205/782/1/L2

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/782/1/l2 2014

  38. [38]

    2011, , 530, A45, 10.1051/0004-6361/201015937

    Jerkstrand , A., Fransson , C., & Kozma , C. 2011, , 530, A45, 10.1051/0004-6361/201015937

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201015937 2011

  39. [39]

    C., Kavanagh , P

    Jones , O. C., Kavanagh , P. J., Barlow , M. J., et al. 2023 a , , 958, 95, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad0036

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad0036 2023

  40. [40]

    , keywords =

    Jones , O. C., \'A lvarez-M \'a rquez , J., Sloan , G. C., et al. 2023 b , , 523, 2519, 10.1093/mnras/stad1609

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1609 2023

  41. [41]

    A., & Mandel , E

    Joye , W. A., & Mandel , E. 2003, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 295, Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems XII, ed. H. E. Payne , R. I. Jedrzejewski , & R. N. Hook , 489

    2003

  42. [42]

    2023, , 675, A166, 10.1051/0004-6361/202245829

    Kangas , T., Ahola , A., Fransson , C., et al. 2023, , 675, A166, 10.1051/0004-6361/202245829

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245829 2023

  43. [43]

    2022, , 511, 2977, 10.1093/mnras/stab3683

    Kangas , T., Fransson , C., Larsson , J., et al. 2022, , 511, 2977, 10.1093/mnras/stab3683

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3683 2022

  44. [44]

    2013, , 768, 89, 10.1088/0004-637X/768/1/89

    Larsson , J., Fransson , C., Kjaer , K., et al. 2013, , 768, 89, 10.1088/0004-637X/768/1/89

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/768/1/89 2013

  45. [45]

    2016, , 833, 147, 10.3847/1538-4357/833/2/147

    Larsson , J., Fransson , C., Spyromilio , J., et al. 2016, , 833, 147, 10.3847/1538-4357/833/2/147

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/833/2/147 2016

  46. [46]

    2019 a , , 886, 147, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab4ff2

    Larsson , J., Fransson , C., Alp , D., et al. 2019 a , , 886, 147, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab4ff2

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4ff2 2019

  47. [47]

    2019 b , , 873, 15, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab03d1

    Larsson , J., Spyromilio , J., Fransson , C., et al. 2019 b , , 873, 15, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab03d1

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab03d1 2019

  48. [48]

    2023, , 949, L27, 10.3847/2041-8213/acd555

    Larsson , J., Fransson , C., Sargent , B., et al. 2023, , 949, L27, 10.3847/2041-8213/acd555

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acd555 2023

  49. [49]

    J., et al

    Larsson , J., Fransson , C., Kavanagh , P. J., et al. 2025, , 991, 130, 10.3847/1538-4357/adf741

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adf741 2025

  50. [50]

    Law , D. R., E. Morrison , J., Argyriou , I., et al. 2023, , 166, 45, 10.3847/1538-3881/acdddc

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acdddc 2023

  51. [51]

    R., Argyriou , I., Gordon , K

    Law , D. R., Argyriou , I., Gordon , K. D., et al. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2409.15435, 10.48550/arXiv.2409.15435

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2409.15435 2024

  52. [52]

    S., Sugerman , B

    Lawrence , S. S., Sugerman , B. E., Bouchet , P., et al. 2000, , 537, L123, 10.1086/312771

    work page doi:10.1086/312771 2000

  53. [53]

    B., Danziger , I

    Lucy , L. B., Danziger , I. J., Gouiffes , C., & Bouchet , P. 1989, in IAU Colloq. 120: Structure and Dynamics of the Interstellar Medium, ed. G. Tenorio-Tagle , M. Moles , & J. Melnick , Vol. 350, 164, 10.1007/BFb0114861

    work page doi:10.1007/bfb0114861 1989

  54. [54]

    2011, Science, 333, 1258, 10.1126/science.1205983

    Matsuura , M., Dwek , E., Meixner , M., et al. 2011, Science, 333, 1258, 10.1126/science.1205983

    work page doi:10.1126/science.1205983 2011

  55. [55]

    J., et al

    Matsuura , M., Dwek , E., Barlow , M. J., et al. 2015, , 800, 50, 10.1088/0004-637X/800/1/50

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/800/1/50 2015

  56. [56]

    M., Arendt , R

    Matsuura , M., De Buizer , J. M., Arendt , R. G., et al. 2019, , 482, 1715, 10.1093/mnras/sty2734

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2734 2019

  57. [57]

    G., et al

    Matsuura , M., Wesson , R., Arendt , R. G., et al. 2022, , 517, 4327, 10.1093/mnras/stac3036

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3036 2022

  58. [58]

    G., et al

    Matsuura , M., Boyer , M., Arendt , R. G., et al. 2024, , 532, 3625, 10.1093/mnras/stae1032

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stae1032 2024

  59. [59]

    2016, , 54, 19, 10.1146/annurev-astro-082615-105405

    McCray , R., & Fransson , C. 2016, , 54, 19, 10.1146/annurev-astro-082615-105405

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082615-105405 2016

  60. [60]

    R., Matsuura , M., & Sarangi , A

    Micelotta , E. R., Matsuura , M., & Sarangi , A. 2018, , 214, 53, 10.1007/s11214-018-0484-7

    work page doi:10.1007/s11214-018-0484-7 2018

  61. [61]

    1908, Annalen der Physik, 330, 377

    Mie, G. 1908, Annalen der Physik, 330, 377

    1908

  62. [62]

    W., & de Koter , A

    Min , M., Hovenier , J. W., & de Koter , A. 2003, , 404, 35, 10.1051/0004-6361:20030456

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20030456 2003

  63. [63]

    2007, Science, 315, 1103, 10.1126/science.1136351

    Morris , T., & Podsiadlowski , P. 2007, Science, 315, 1103, 10.1126/science.1136351

    work page doi:10.1126/science.1136351 2007

  64. [64]

    2010, MNRAS, 401, 1670, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15794.x

    ---. 2009, , 399, 515, 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15114.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15114.x 2009

  65. [65]

    Nahar , S. N. 1997, , 55, 1980, 10.1103/PhysRevA.55.1980

    work page doi:10.1103/physreva.55.1980 1997

  66. [66]

    Ossenkopf , V., Henning , T., & Mathis , J. S. 1992, , 261, 567

    1992

  67. [67]

    2011, Journal of machine learning research, 12, 2825

    Pedregosa, F., Varoquaux, G., Gramfort, A., et al. 2011, Journal of machine learning research, 12, 2825

    2011

  68. [68]

    2019, , 567, 200, 10.1038/s41586-019-0999-4

    Pietrzy \'n ski , G., Graczyk , D., Gallenne , A., et al. 2019, , 567, 200, 10.1038/s41586-019-0999-4

    work page doi:10.1038/s41586-019-0999-4 2019

  69. [69]

    A., Hudson , C

    Ramsbottom , C. A., Hudson , C. E., Norrington , P. H., & Scott , M. P. 2007, , 475, 765, 10.1051/0004-6361:20078640

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078640 2007

  70. [70]

    2024, , 966, 238, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad36cc

    Rosu , S., Larsson , J., Fransson , C., et al. 2024, , 966, 238, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad36cc

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad36cc 2024

  71. [71]

    Smith , J. D. T., Rudnick , L., Delaney , T., et al. 2009, , 693, 713, 10.1088/0004-637X/693/1/713

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/693/1/713 2009

  72. [72]

    T., Ramsbottom , C

    Smyth , R. T., Ramsbottom , C. A., Keenan , F. P., Ferland , G. J., & Ballance , C. P. 2019, , 483, 654, 10.1093/mnras/sty3198

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty3198 2019

  73. [73]

    Sonneborn , G., Pun , C. S. J., Kimble , R. A., et al. 1998, , 492, L139, 10.1086/311106

    work page doi:10.1086/311106 1998

  74. [74]

    2024, , 976, 164, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad812e

    Tegkelidis , C., Larsson , J., & Fransson , C. 2024, , 976, 164, 10.3847/1538-4357/ad812e

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad812e 2024

  75. [75]

    van Hoof , P. A. M. 2018, Galaxies, 6, 63, 10.3390/galaxies6020063

    work page doi:10.3390/galaxies6020063 2018

  76. [76]

    C., & Draine, B

    Weingartner , J. C., & Draine , B. T. 2001, , 548, 296, 10.1086/318651

    work page doi:10.1086/318651 2001

  77. [77]

    2015, PASP, 127, 646, doi: 10.1086/682281

    Wells , M., Pel , J. W., Glasse , A., et al. 2015, , 127, 646, 10.1086/682281

    work page doi:10.1086/682281 2015

  78. [78]

    J., Matsuura , M., & Ercolano , B

    Wesson , R., Barlow , M. J., Matsuura , M., & Ercolano , B. 2015, , 446, 2089, 10.1093/mnras/stu2250

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2250 2015

  79. [79]

    H., Rank , D

    Wooden , D. H., Rank , D. M., Bregman , J. D., et al. 1993, , 88, 477, 10.1086/191830

    work page doi:10.1086/191830 1993