pith. machine review for the scientific record. sign in

arxiv: 2604.13267 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-14 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA

Recognition: unknown

The Great Escape of ionizing photons during Cosmic Morning

Akio Inoue, Anne Verhamme, Edmund Christian Herenz, Kanak Saha, Marc Rafelski, Michael Rutkowski, Rogier Windhorst, Roland Bacon, Shyam N. Tandon, Soumil Maulick, Souradeep Bhattacharya

Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-10 14:06 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA
keywords ionizing photonsescape fractioncosmic reionizationLyα emittershigh-redshift galaxiesUV slopestellar populationshelium reionization
0
0 comments X

The pith

Faint galaxies at redshift 6 directly emit ionizing photons with an escape fraction near 80 percent.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper establishes the first direct detection of ionizing photons at rest-frame wavelengths 350, 392, and 485 angstroms. These photons are measured in a stacked sample of spectroscopically confirmed Lyα emitters at redshifts 5.9 to 6.0 using UV imaging from AstroSat and HST. The detections indicate that the interstellar and intergalactic media are more transparent to ionizing radiation than current models predict. The stacked spectrum for these faint galaxies yields an escape fraction of about 0.8 and a high ionizing photon production rate, suggesting young hot stars in low-metallicity environments drove reionization.

Core claim

We report the first direct detection of ionizing photons at rest-frame wavelengths 350Å, 392Å, and 485Å using deep UV imaging from AstroSat and HST. These photons emerge from a stacked sample of spectroscopically confirmed Lyα emitters at 5.9<z<6.0. These detections imply a higher transparency of the interstellar and intergalactic media to ionizing radiation than predicted by current models. The stacked spectrum for faint galaxies with M_UV=-18.77±0.05 exhibits a hard slope and produces log10 ξ_ion^true = 25.86 ± 0.02 Hz erg^{-1} with escape fraction f_esc ≃ 0.8. Individual galaxies show very blue UV continua, young ages <6 Myr, and low metallicities, indicating hot massive stars. Photons >

What carries the argument

The stacked spectrum from AstroSat and HST UV imaging of high-redshift Lyα emitters that allows direct measurement of the ionizing continuum flux and calculation of the escape fraction.

Load-bearing premise

The short UV wavelength flux in the stack originates only from the target high-redshift galaxies without foreground contamination or background subtraction issues.

What would settle it

If the measured flux at 350-485 angstroms is shown to be zero or due to contamination in a reanalysis with better data reduction, the detection claim would be falsified.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.13267 by Akio Inoue, Anne Verhamme, Edmund Christian Herenz, Kanak Saha, Marc Rafelski, Michael Rutkowski, Rogier Windhorst, Roland Bacon, Shyam N. Tandon, Soumil Maulick, Souradeep Bhattacharya.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: HST and JWST Postage Stamps: Cutout (3′′ x 3′′) for all 10 galaxies (G1 - G10). G1, G2, G3, G4 and G10 are part of the HST Gold sample. G6 and G8 lack detectable stellar continuum either in the HST/Optical or JWST/NIRCam filters. Radii of the red dashed circular apertures are 0.5 ′′ and they are centered on the detected Lyα centroid of these galaxies from MUSE. The apparent offset between Lyα and stellar c… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: UVIT Postage Stamps: Cutout (20′′ x 20′′) for all 7 galaxies. G1, G3, and G4 constitute the UVIT Gold sample. G1, G3, G4, G5 and G7 constitute the UVIT Silver sample. The radius of the dashed red circle in each panel is 1.2′′ . Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3/UVIS) aboard the Hubble Space Telescope (Program ID GO-12534; PI: Teplitz). The UVUDF provides deep imaging in the F225W, F275W, and F336W filters; here we… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: MUSE and JWST prism spectra: The left panels show the JWST prism spectra of the five galaxies (G1, G2, G3, G4, G10) comprising the gold sample. For each galaxy, Lyα emission line profile from VLT/MUSE is highlighted in the right panel. quently places the Lyα emission near the redder end of the MUSE spectral window. Notably, this redshift range also enables the study of the reionization era at a stage appro… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: Narrow band images of Lyman alpha emission and their stack: Left panel shows the stacked Lyα narrowband image of the Bronze sample from z=5.9 - 6.0. Each LAE was aligned so that its Lyα centroid lies at the image center (0,0, marked by the plus sign). Right panel: Narrow band images of individual LAEs. G1, G2, G3, G4 and G10 are members of the Gold sample having JWST/NIRSpec spectra with multiple emission … view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Stack Detection of ionizing photons: Panel a showing the stacked image of UVIT Bronze sample emitting rest-frame 350Å emission between redshift z = 5.9 − 6.0 caught in the AstroSat/UVIT/N242W filter. The dark solid contours are drawn at 1σ, 2σ, 3σ, 4σ where σ = 1.44 × 10−5 ct pix−1 s −1 (cps) refers to the rms of the final stacked image. The white dashed contours refer to the negative intensity contours. P… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Gold stack: Panels showing stacked images considering only the Gold sample galaxies (G1, G2, G3, G4 and G10). For each stacked image, the color scheme is same but color-bar scale has been customized. Each image has been smoothed with a tophat kernel. The rest-frame wavelength corresponds to the filter mean wavelength after redshifting. LAEs in the UVIT/N242W Bronze sample, with a sig￾nal detected at 8.4σ a… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Left panel: Contours of Lyα and ionizing photon fluxes from three filters overlayed on the stack UV continuum measured in HST/F850LP. Right panel: Stack surface brightness profiles (normalized) in each filter are compared with their respective PSF profile. Red dashed line in each panel marks the aperture radius used for calculating the stack flux. vestigate this, we estimate the light-weighted centroid of … view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Lyman valley, Non-detection of ionizing continuum from λrest = 500 − 800: Panel a: Stack of Bronze sample in the ACS/WFC/F435W filter (covering the rest-frame wavelength of 520 − 703 of HST showing null detection. Panel b: Stack of MUSE sub-CUBE with spatial dimension 5” × 5” (same as in panel a) - the flux within the solid circle of radius 3 pix is −0.24 × 10−18 erg s−1 cm−2 . The 3σ upper limit is given … view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Blank-Sky stack: 60 random locations, away from any source are selected from the UVUDF/F275W, F336W mosaics and AUDF-South N242W filter mosaics. From these 60 cutouts, 10 are chosen randomly to produce a stack in the HST filters. The same has been done for the N242W filters with randomly drawing 7 objects at a time. This has been repeated over 7000 times for N242W, 8000 for F275W and 7000 times for the F33… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Non-ionizing UV continuum: Stack in ACS/WFC/F775W, F814W and F850LP filters correspond￾ing to the rest-frame wavelength of λ¯rest = 1114, 1171 and 1308 with SNR=10.4σ, 7.8σ and 30.8σ respectively (see Ta￾ble 2). bution assumed in our simulation - an implication from the stacking detection in three filters at z = 5.94. Fur￾thermore, these Monte Carlo simulations only include H i absorbers, the contribution… view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Spectral Slope: An MCMC analysis for esti￾mating the ionizing spectral slope. del et al. 2001). As shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p017_13.png] view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Emission-line spectra: 1D JWST/NIRSPEC grating spectra (G140M/F070LP: blue; G235M/F170LP: green; G395M/F290LP: red) for the five galaxies in our gold sample. The emission-lines detected with S/N>3 are marked in grey. For G3 and G10, the insets show the zoom-in of the spectra around the [NeIII]λ3686 Å and Hγ lines, along with their corresponding uncertainty (grey). butions is visualized using a corner plot… view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: Comparison with Low-z leakers: At ⟨z⟩ ∼ 0.3, (LzLCS+ sample, Izotov et al. 2016a,b, 2018a; Wang et al. 2019; Izotov et al. 2021; Flury et al. 2022a), Sunburst Arc at z = 2.37 (Rivera-Thorsen et al. 2019), and the so-called LyC Monster (Marques-Chaves et al. 2022) at z = 3.61. Left panel: O32 vs EW Hβ. Right panel: gas-phase metallicity vs EW Hβ. following an optimal extraction procedure from the cali￾brat… view at source ↗
read the original abstract

The end of the Cosmic Dark Age marked the onset of reionization, driven by extreme-UV photons from the first galaxies. Direct detection of such photons has remained challenging due to strong intergalactic attenuation. Here, we report the first direct detection of ionizing photons at rest-frame wavelengths $350\r{A}$, $392\r{A}$, and $485\r{A}$, using deep UV imaging from two independent space observatories: AstroSat and HST. These photons emerge from a stacked sample of spectroscopically confirmed Ly$\alpha$ emitters at $5.9<z<6.0$ in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field identified with VLT/MUSE and JWST/NIRSpec. These detections imply a higher transparency of the interstellar and intergalactic media to ionizing radiation than predicted by current models. The stacked spectrum, representative of faint galaxies with $M_{\mathrm{UV}}=-18.77\pm0.05$ ($\sim0.1L^{\ast}$), exhibits a hard slope ($-2.3\pm0.1$) and produces ionizing photons with $\text{log}_{10}\xi_{\text{ion}}^{true}$ = $25.86 \pm 0.02$ Hz erg$^{-1}$ and escape fraction $f_{esc}\simeq 0.8$. Individual measurements reveal very blue UV continua ($\beta \leq -3$) for three galaxies), young ages ($< 6$ Myr for four), and low metallicities ($Z \sim 0.02 - 0.05\ Z_{\odot}$ for two), indicating the possible presence of very hot, massive stars capable of producing enough ionizing photons to drive cosmic reionization, thereby providing new constraints on its sources. Furthermore, detection of photons with energies $>24.6\ $eV provide evidence that HeI reionization has begun by this epoch.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper claims the first direct detection of ionizing photons at rest-frame 350Å, 392Å, and 485Å from a stacked sample of spectroscopically confirmed Lyα emitters at 5.9<z<6.0 in the HUDF, using AstroSat UVIT and HST imaging. The stacked spectrum of faint galaxies (M_UV=-18.77) exhibits a hard UV slope (-2.3±0.1), yielding log10 ξ_ion^true=25.86±0.02 Hz erg^{-1} and f_esc≃0.8, which the authors interpret as evidence for higher IGM/ISM transparency than current models predict, young low-metallicity stars driving reionization, and the onset of HeI reionization.

Significance. If the stacked far-UV detections prove robust, the result would be significant for reionization studies: it supplies direct observational constraints on ionizing-photon escape from sub-L* galaxies at Cosmic Morning, potentially resolving the photon-budget shortfall and highlighting the role of very young, hot stellar populations. The dual-observatory approach and spectroscopic confirmation add weight to the measurement if systematics are controlled.

major comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the headline detection of ionizing photons at 350–485Å and the derived f_esc≃0.8 rest on the assumption that the stacked flux originates exclusively from the target z≈5.9–6.0 Lyα emitters. No quantitative information is given on stacking weights, aperture extraction, source masking, foreground-interloper rejection, or null tests, which is load-bearing because IGM transmission at these wavelengths is expected to be <<1 and even small contaminants would inflate the signal.
  2. [Results (derived quantities)] The conversion from observed stacked fluxes to intrinsic ξ_ion^true and f_esc: the manuscript states the final values but does not specify the IGM transmission curve, ISM absorption model, or SED assumptions used to correct for attenuation. Because the claimed f_esc is unusually high (≃0.8), a sensitivity analysis to these choices is required to substantiate the claim of higher transparency than models predict.
minor comments (2)
  1. [Abstract] The abstract notes data from two independent observatories but does not describe cross-calibration or how the AstroSat and HST measurements were combined in the stack.
  2. [Abstract] Notation: the units of ξ_ion are given as Hz erg^{-1}; confirm this is consistent throughout and matches standard usage (erg^{-1} Hz).

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their positive assessment of the potential significance of our results and for the constructive comments that will improve the clarity and robustness of the manuscript. We address each major comment below.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the headline detection of ionizing photons at 350–485Å and the derived f_esc≃0.8 rest on the assumption that the stacked flux originates exclusively from the target z≈5.9–6.0 Lyα emitters. No quantitative information is given on stacking weights, aperture extraction, source masking, foreground-interloper rejection, or null tests, which is load-bearing because IGM transmission at these wavelengths is expected to be <<1 and even small contaminants would inflate the signal.

    Authors: We agree that quantitative documentation of the stacking procedure is essential given the expected low IGM transmission. The manuscript describes the selection of spectroscopically confirmed Lyα emitters, the use of AstroSat UVIT and HST imaging, and the stacking approach, but we acknowledge that explicit details on stacking weights, aperture sizes, source masking criteria, interloper rejection methods, and null-test results are not presented at the level of specificity required. We will revise the Methods section to include these quantitative elements, along with an estimate of the contamination fraction derived from the multiwavelength HUDF data and results from null tests (stacking at random positions and on control samples). This will strengthen the demonstration that the signal originates from the target galaxies. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [Results (derived quantities)] The conversion from observed stacked fluxes to intrinsic ξ_ion^true and f_esc: the manuscript states the final values but does not specify the IGM transmission curve, ISM absorption model, or SED assumptions used to correct for attenuation. Because the claimed f_esc is unusually high (≃0.8), a sensitivity analysis to these choices is required to substantiate the claim of higher transparency than models predict.

    Authors: We agree that explicit specification of the correction models and a sensitivity analysis are needed to support the derived quantities and the interpretation of high transparency. The manuscript applies standard IGM transmission models at z≈6 and SED templates for young low-metallicity populations to convert observed fluxes to intrinsic ξ_ion^true and f_esc, but these are not stated in detail nor tested for sensitivity. We will revise the relevant sections to specify the exact IGM transmission curve, ISM absorption assumptions, and SED models used, and we will add a sensitivity analysis varying these inputs (e.g., alternative UVB models, dust geometries, and stellar population parameters). The analysis will demonstrate the range of f_esc values consistent with the data. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No circularity: derived quantities follow from external data and standard models

full rationale

The paper's central results (stacked far-UV detections at 350–485 Å, log ξ_ion^true = 25.86, f_esc ≃ 0.8) are obtained by measuring fluxes in AstroSat UVIT and HST data on a MUSE/NIRSpec-selected Lyα-emitter stack, then applying standard IGM transmission curves and SED-based intrinsic production estimates. No equation in the provided text defines ξ_ion or f_esc in terms of themselves, renames a fit as a prediction, or invokes a self-citation as the sole justification for a uniqueness theorem or ansatz. The conversion steps rely on externally calibrated transmission models and galaxy SED libraries whose assumptions are independent of the present measurements. Minor dependence on assumed SED shapes for the intrinsic ionizing output does not constitute circularity under the stated criteria, as it does not reduce the reported values to the paper's own inputs by construction.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The detection interpretation rests on standard assumptions about photon propagation through the IGM and on the fidelity of the stacked signal; no new particles or forces are introduced.

free parameters (1)
  • log10 ξ_ion^true
    Value 25.86 is reported as measured from the stacked spectrum but depends on assumed intrinsic galaxy properties and luminosity distance.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption The intergalactic and interstellar media attenuation at these wavelengths is correctly modeled by current prescriptions
    Invoked to convert observed flux into escape fraction and transparency inference.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5682 in / 1469 out tokens · 55231 ms · 2026-05-10T14:06:32.556009+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

101 extracted references · 99 canonical work pages · 1 internal anchor

  1. [1]

    I., et al

    Alavi, A., Colbert, J., Teplitz, H. I., et al. 2020, ApJ, 904, 59, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/abbd43 Astropy-Specutils Development Team. 2019, Specutils: Spectroscopic analysis and reduction, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1902.012. http://ascl.net/1902.012 24

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abbd43 2020

  2. [2]

    J., et al

    Atek, H., Labbé, I., Furtak, L. J., et al. 2024, Nature, 626, 975, doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07043-6

    work page doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07043-6 2024

  3. [3]

    2023, A&A, 670, A4, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202244187

    Bacon, R., Brinchmann, J., Conseil, S., et al. 2023, A&A, 670, A4, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202244187

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244187 2023

  4. [4]

    D., D’Aloisio, A., Christenson, H

    Becker, G. D., D’Aloisio, A., Christenson, H. M., et al. 2021, MNRAS, 508, 1853, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab2696

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab2696 2021

  5. [5]

    , keywords =

    Bertin, E., & Arnouts, S. 1996, A&AS, 117, 393, doi: 10.1051/aas:1996164

    work page doi:10.1051/aas:1996164 1996

  6. [6]

    2017, ApJL, 837, L12, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/aa5ff7

    Bian, F., Fan, X., McGreer, I., Cai, Z., & Jiang, L. 2017, ApJL, 837, L12, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/aa5ff7

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa5ff7 2017

  7. [7]

    Bosman, S. E. I., Davies, F. B., Becker, G. D., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 514, 55, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac1046

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1046 2022

  8. [8]

    J., Illingworth, G

    Bouwens, R. J., Illingworth, G. D., Oesch, P. A., et al. 2010, ApJL, 709, L133, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/709/2/L133

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/709/2/l133 2010

  9. [9]

    J., Illingworth, G

    Bouwens, R. J., Illingworth, G. D., Labbe, I., et al. 2011, Nature, 469, 504, doi: 10.1038/nature09717

    work page doi:10.1038/nature09717 2011

  10. [10]

    AJ , keywords =

    Bouwens, R. J., Oesch, P. A., Stefanon, M., et al. 2021, AJ, 162, 47, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/abf83e

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abf83e 2021

  11. [11]

    J., Cameron, A

    Bunker, A. J., Cameron, A. J., Curtis-Lake, E., et al. 2023, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2306.02467, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2306.02467 —. 2024, A&A, 690, A288, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202347094

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2306.02467 2023

  12. [12]

    Crighton, N. H. M., Murphy, M. T., Prochaska, J. X., et al. 2015, MNRAS, 452, 217, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stv1182

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1182 2015

  13. [13]

    Cullen et al.MNRAS, 540(3):2176–2194, July 2025

    Cullen, F., Carnall, A. C., Scholte, D., et al. 2025, MNRAS, 540, 2176, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf838

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staf838 2025

  14. [14]

    JADES Data Release 4 Paper I: Sample Selection, Observing Strategy and Redshifts of the complete spectroscopic sample

    Curtis-Lake, E., Cameron, A. J., Bunker, A. J., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2510.01033, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2510.01033 D’Eugenio, F., Cameron, A. J., Scholtz, J., et al. 2025, ApJS, 277, 4, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ada148

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv doi:10.48550/arxiv.2510.01033 2025

  15. [15]

    2024, ApJL, 963, L23, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ad2344 D’Odorico, V., Bañados, E., Becker, G

    Dhiwar, S., Saha, K., Maulick, S., et al. 2024, ApJL, 963, L23, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ad2344 D’Odorico, V., Bañados, E., Becker, G. D., et al. 2023, MNRAS, 523, 1399, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stad1468

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad2344 2024

  16. [16]

    J., et al., 2025, @doi [ ] 10.3847/1538-4365/ae1137 , 281, 50

    Eisenstein, D. J., Johnson, B. D., Robertson, B., et al. 2025, ApJS, 281, 50, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ae1137

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ae1137 2025

  17. [17]

    S., McLure, R

    Ellis, R. S., McLure, R. J., Dunlop, J. S., et al. 2013, ApJL, 763, L7, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/763/1/L7

    work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/763/1/l7 2013

  18. [18]

    2017, Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences, 4, 32, doi: 10.3389/fspas.2017.00032

    Feltre, A., Charlot, S., Mignoli, M., et al. 2017, Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences, 4, 32, doi: 10.3389/fspas.2017.00032

    work page doi:10.3389/fspas.2017.00032 2017

  19. [19]

    J., Tang, M., Robertson, B

    Fletcher, T. J., Tang, M., Robertson, B. E., et al. 2019, ApJ, 878, 87, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab2045

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab2045 2019

  20. [20]

    R., Jaskot, A

    Flury, S. R., Jaskot, A. E., Ferguson, H. C., et al. 2022a, ApJS, 260, 1, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ac5331 —. 2022b, ApJ, 930, 126, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac61e4 Förster Schreiber, N. M., & Wuyts, S. 2020, ARA&A, 58, 661, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-032620-021910

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ac5331 2020

  21. [21]

    , keywords =

    Giavalisco, M., Ferguson, H. C., Koekemoer, A. M., et al. 2004, ApJL, 600, L93, doi: 10.1086/379232

    work page doi:10.1086/379232 2004

  22. [22]

    , keywords =

    Grogin, N. A., Kocevski, D. D., Faber, S. M., et al. 2011, ApJS, 197, 35, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/197/2/35

    work page doi:10.1088/0067-0049/197/2/35 2011

  23. [23]

    E., & Peterson, B

    Gunn, J. E., & Peterson, B. A. 1965, ApJ, 142, 1633, doi: 10.1086/148444

    work page doi:10.1086/148444 1965

  24. [24]

    M., Jaiswar, R., et al

    Gupta, A., Trott, C. M., Jaiswar, R., et al. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2403.13285, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2403.13285

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2403.13285 2024

  25. [25]

    Herenz, E. C. 2023, Astronomische Nachrichten, 344, e20220091, doi: 10.1002/asna.20220091

    work page doi:10.1002/asna.20220091 2023

  26. [26]

    2016, The Hubble Legacy Fields (HLF-GOODS-S) v1.5 Data Products: Combining 2442 Orbits of GOODS-S/CDF-S Region ACS and WFC3/IR Images, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.1606.00841

    Illingworth, G., Magee, D., Bouwens, R., et al. 2016, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:1606.00841, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.1606.00841

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.1606.00841 2016

  27. [27]

    , keywords =

    Illingworth, G. D., Magee, D., Oesch, P. A., et al. 2013, ApJS, 209, 6, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/209/1/6

    work page doi:10.1088/0067-0049/209/1/6 2013

  28. [28]

    A., & McCollough, M

    Inoue, A. K., & Iwata, I. 2008, MNRAS, 387, 1681, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13350.x

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13350.x 2008

  29. [29]

    K., Shimizu, I., Iwata, I., & Tanaka, M

    Inoue, A. K., Shimizu, I., Iwata, I., & Tanaka, M. 2014, MNRAS, 442, 1805, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stu936

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stu936 2014

  30. [30]

    I., Orlitová, I., Schaerer, D., et al

    Izotov, Y. I., Orlitová, I., Schaerer, D., et al. 2016a, Nature, 529, 178, doi: 10.1038/nature16456

    work page doi:10.1038/nature16456

  31. [31]

    I., Schaerer, D., Thuan, T

    Izotov, Y. I., Schaerer, D., Thuan, T. X., et al. 2016b, MNRAS, 461, 3683, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stw1205

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1205

  32. [32]

    I., Schaerer, D., Worseck, G., et al

    Izotov, Y. I., Schaerer, D., Worseck, G., et al. 2018a, MNRAS, 474, 4514, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx3115

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx3115

  33. [33]

    I., Worseck, G., Schaerer, D., et al

    Izotov, Y. I., Worseck, G., Schaerer, D., et al. 2021, MNRAS, 503, 1734, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab612 —. 2018b, MNRAS, 478, 4851, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1378

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab612 2021

  34. [34]

    2020, ApJ, 888, 109, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab5fdc

    Ji, Z., Giavalisco, M., Vanzella, E., et al. 2020, ApJ, 888, 109, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab5fdc

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab5fdc 2020

  35. [35]

    H., Windhorst, R

    Jiang, L., Cohen, S. H., Windhorst, R. A., et al. 2020, ApJ, 889, 90, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab64ea

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab64ea 2020

  36. [36]

    C., Weinberger, L

    Keating, L. C., Weinberger, L. H., Kulkarni, G., et al. 2020, MNRAS, 491, 1736, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz3083

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz3083 2020

  37. [37]

    A., Wisotzki, L., et al

    Kerutt, J., Oesch, P. A., Wisotzki, L., et al. 2024, A&A, 684, A42, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202346656

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346656 2024

  38. [38]

    H., Maseda , M

    Laseter, I. H., Maseda, M. V., Curti, M., et al. 2024, A&A, 681, A70, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202347133

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347133 2024

  39. [39]

    R., & Trac, H

    Lee, K.-G., Cen, R., Gott, III, J. R., & Trac, H. 2008, ApJ, 675, 8, doi: 10.1086/525520

    work page doi:10.1086/525520 2008

  40. [40]

    C., Fuller, S., Bradač, M., et al

    Lemaux, B. C., Fuller, S., Bradač, M., et al. 2021, MNRAS, 504, 3662, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab924

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab924 2021

  41. [41]

    2025, A&A, 704, A328, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556410

    Liu, Y., Mascia, S., Pentericci, L., et al. 2025, A&A, 704, A328, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202556410

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202556410 2025

  42. [42]

    1995, ApJ, 441, 18, doi: 10.1086/175332 Ma´ ız Apell´ aniz, J

    Madau, P. 1995, ApJ, 441, 18, doi: 10.1086/175332

    work page doi:10.1086/175332 1995

  43. [43]

    Madau, P., Haardt, F., & Rees, M. J. 1999, ApJ, 514, 648, doi: 10.1086/306975

    work page doi:10.1086/306975 1999

  44. [44]

    B., et al

    Makan, K., Worseck, G., Davies, F. B., et al. 2021, ApJ, 912, 38, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/abee17 25

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abee17 2021

  45. [45]

    E., Pirzkal, N., et al

    Malhotra, S., Rhoads, J. E., Pirzkal, N., et al. 2005, ApJ, 626, 666, doi: 10.1086/430047

    work page doi:10.1086/430047 2005

  46. [46]

    2021, MNRAS, 507, 524, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab2187 —

    Marques-Chaves, R., Schaerer, D., Álvarez-Márquez, J., et al. 2021, MNRAS, 507, 524, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stab2187 —. 2022, MNRAS, 517, 2972, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac2893

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stab2187 2021

  47. [47]

    2024, A&A, 685, A3, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202347884

    Mascia, S., Pentericci, L., Calabrò, A., et al. 2024, A&A, 685, A3, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202347884

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347884 2024

  48. [48]

    V., Bacon, R., Franx, M., et al

    Maseda, M. V., Bacon, R., Franx, M., et al. 2018, ApJL, 865, L1, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/aade4b

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aade4b 2018

  49. [49]

    V., Bacon, R., Lam, D., et al

    Maseda, M. V., Bacon, R., Lam, D., et al. 2020, MNRAS, 493, 5120, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staa622

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa622 2020

  50. [50]

    2026, ApJ, 996, 16, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae196f

    Maulick, S., & Saha, K. 2026, ApJ, 996, 16, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ae196f

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae196f 2026

  51. [51]

    Maulick, S., Saha, K., & Rutkowski, M. J. 2025, ApJ, 984, 40, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/adc10e

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adc10e 2025

  52. [52]

    2024, A&A, 691, A240, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202451409 Meštrić, U., Vanzella, E., Upadhyaya, A., et al

    Merlin, E., Santini, P., Paris, D., et al. 2024, A&A, 691, A240, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202451409 Meštrić, U., Vanzella, E., Upadhyaya, A., et al. 2023, A&A, 673, A50, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202345895

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202451409 2024

  53. [53]

    A., Roberts-Borsani, G., Oesch, P

    Meyer, R. A., Roberts-Borsani, G., Oesch, P. A., & Ellis, R. S. 2025, MNRAS, 542, 1952, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf1312

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staf1312 2025

  54. [54]

    1993, MNRAS, 262, 273, doi: 10.1093/mnras/262.1.273 Møller, P., & Jakobsen, P

    Miralda-Escude, J. 1993, MNRAS, 262, 273, doi: 10.1093/mnras/262.1.273 Møller, P., & Jakobsen, P. 1990, A&A, 228, 299

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/262.1.273 1993

  55. [55]

    G., Brammer, G

    Momcheva, I. G., Brammer, G. B., van Dokkum, P. G., et al. 2016, ApJS, 225, 27, doi: 10.3847/0067-0049/225/2/27

    work page doi:10.3847/0067-0049/225/2/27 2016

  56. [56]

    P., Tacchella, S., Mason, C

    Naidu, R. P., Tacchella, S., Mason, C. A., et al. 2020, ApJ, 892, 109, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab7cc9

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab7cc9 2020

  57. [57]

    B., Shapley, A

    Nestor, D. B., Shapley, A. E., Steidel, C. C., & Siana, B. 2011, ApJ, 736, 18, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/736/1/18

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/736/1/18 2011

  58. [58]

    B., & Gunn, J

    Oke, J. B., & Gunn, J. E. 1983, ApJ, 266, 713, doi: 10.1086/160817

    work page doi:10.1086/160817 1983

  59. [59]

    M., Berg, D

    Olivier, G. M., Berg, D. A., Chisholm, J., et al. 2022, ApJ, 938, 16, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac8f2c

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8f2c 2022

  60. [60]

    2025, ApJS, 276, 52, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ad9906

    Pandey, P., & Saha, K. 2025, ApJS, 276, 52, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ad9906

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ad9906 2025

  61. [61]

    I., Gardner, J

    Rafelski, M., Teplitz, H. I., Gardner, J. P., et al. 2015, AJ, 150, 31, doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/150/1/31

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-6256/150/1/31 2015

  62. [62]

    A., Oesch, P

    Reddy, N. A., Oesch, P. A., Bouwens, R. J., et al. 2018, ApJ, 853, 56, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aaa3e7

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaa3e7 2018

  63. [63]

    J., Robertson, B., Tacchella, S., et al

    Rieke, M. J., Robertson, B., Tacchella, S., et al. 2023, ApJS, 269, 16, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/acf44d

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/acf44d 2023

  64. [64]

    E., Dahle, H., Chisholm, J., et al

    Rivera-Thorsen, T. E., Dahle, H., Chisholm, J., et al. 2019, Science, 366, 738, doi: 10.1126/science.aaw0978

    work page doi:10.1126/science.aaw0978 2019

  65. [65]

    E., Le Reste, A., Hayes, M

    Rivera-Thorsen, T. E., Le Reste, A., Hayes, M. J., et al. 2026, A&A, 707, L7, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202558750

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202558750 2026

  66. [66]

    Robertson, B. E. 2022, ARA&A, 60, 121, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-120221-044656

    work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-120221-044656 2022

  67. [67]

    E., Ellis, R

    Robertson, B. E., Ellis, R. S., Dunlop, J. S., McLure, R. J., & Stark, D. P. 2010, Nature, 468, 49, doi: 10.1038/nature09527

    work page doi:10.1038/nature09527 2010

  68. [68]

    J., Scarlata, C., Haardt, F., et al

    Rutkowski, M. J., Scarlata, C., Haardt, F., et al. 2016, ApJ, 819, 81, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/819/1/81

    work page doi:10.3847/0004-637x/819/1/81 2016

  69. [69]

    2009, WFC3 SMOV Program 11798: UVIS PSF Core Modulation, Instrument Science Report WFC3 2009-20, 9 pages

    Sabbi, E. 2009, WFC3 SMOV Program 11798: UVIS PSF Core Modulation, Instrument Science Report WFC3 2009-20, 9 pages

    2009

  70. [70]

    2013, UVIS PSF Spatial & Temporal Variations, Instrument Science Report WFC3 2013-011, 10 pages

    Sabbi, E., & Bellini, A. 2013, UVIS PSF Spatial & Temporal Variations, Instrument Science Report WFC3 2013-011, 10 pages

    2013

  71. [71]

    N., Simmonds, C., et al

    Saha, K., Tandon, S. N., Simmonds, C., et al. 2020, Nature Astronomy, 4, 1185, doi: 10.1038/s41550-020-1173-5

    work page doi:10.1038/s41550-020-1173-5 2020

  72. [72]

    2024, ApJS, 275, 28, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ad7e2a

    Saha, K., Maulick, S., Pandey, P., et al. 2024, ApJS, 275, 28, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ad7e2a

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ad7e2a 2024

  73. [73]

    J., Jones, G

    Saxena, A., Bunker, A. J., Jones, G. C., et al. 2024, A&A, 684, A84, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202347132

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347132 2024

  74. [74]

    2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2404.09015, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2404.09015

    Scarlata, C., Hayes, M., Panagia, N., et al. 2024, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2404.09015, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2404.09015

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2404.09015 2024

  75. [75]

    , keywords =

    Schaerer, D. 2003, A&A, 397, 527, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20021525

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20021525 2003

  76. [76]

    C., et al

    Scholte, D., Cullen, F., Carnall, A. C., et al. 2025, MNRAS, 540, 1800, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staf834

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staf834 2025

  77. [77]

    2025a, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2510.01034

    Scholtz, J., Carniani, S., Parlanti, E., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2510.01034, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2510.01034

    work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2510.01034 2025

  78. [78]

    E., Steidel, C

    Shapley, A. E., Steidel, C. C., Strom, A. L., et al. 2016, ApJL, 826, L24, doi: 10.3847/2041-8205/826/2/L24

    work page doi:10.3847/2041-8205/826/2/l24 2016

  79. [79]

    I., Ferguson, H

    Siana, B., Teplitz, H. I., Ferguson, H. C., et al. 2010, ApJ, 723, 241, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/723/1/241

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/723/1/241 2010

  80. [80]

    C., Papovich, C., Momcheva, I

    Simons, R. C., Papovich, C., Momcheva, I. G., et al. 2023, ApJS, 266, 13, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/acc517

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/acc517 2023

Showing first 80 references.