arxiv: 2604.26743 · v1 · submitted 2026-04-29 · 🌌 astro-ph.GA · astro-ph.HE

Recognition: unknown

A Rare Eddington-Limited, Heavily Obscured Low-Mass Active Galactic Nucleus Likely Triggered by a Galaxy Merger

Shouyi Wang , Fan Zou , Chang-Hao Chen , W. N. Brandt , Elena Gallo , Bin Luo , Xue-Bing Wu , Yuming Fu

show 2 more authors

Dieu D. Nguyen Shengxiu Sun

Authors on Pith no claims yet

Pith reviewed 2026-05-07 13:10 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.GA astro-ph.HE

keywords heavily obscured AGNlow-mass galaxiesgalaxy mergersEddington ratioNuSTAR observationsstarburst activityblack hole growthGAMA survey

0 comments

The pith

A low-mass galaxy merger has triggered a heavily obscured Eddington-limited AGN with rapid black-hole growth.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper identifies GAMA 376183 as one of the few known cases of a heavily obscured AGN in a low-mass galaxy of about 10 billion solar masses. NuSTAR observations measure a high column density and intrinsic X-ray luminosity that imply an Eddington ratio near 0.8. Disturbed optical morphology and a starburst signature in the spectral energy distribution point to an ongoing merger as the trigger for both the rapid accretion and the star formation. The source therefore supplies direct evidence that merger-driven coevolution operates in low-mass systems, and that strong [Ne V] emission can flag such obscured AGNs.

Core claim

GAMA 376183 is a heavily obscured AGN in a low-mass galaxy with log N_H approximately 23.3, intrinsic 2-10 keV luminosity of about 10^42.9 erg/s, and Eddington ratio around 0.8; the disturbed morphology indicates the merger is simultaneously driving the Eddington-limited accretion and a recent starburst.

What carries the argument

NuSTAR spectral fit combined with [Ne V] equivalent width, high-resolution optical imaging of disturbed morphology, and multiwavelength SED modeling of the starburst.

If this is right

[Ne V] emission provides an effective way to find heavily obscured AGNs in low-mass galaxies.
The merger-driven coevolution picture established for massive galaxies also applies at lower masses.
Rapid black-hole growth episodes can occur in low-mass merging systems.
Such objects remain rare but are detectable with current X-ray and optical facilities.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

Targeted [Ne V] searches in low-mass galaxies could uncover more examples of merger-triggered obscured growth.
Black-hole growth histories in low-mass galaxies may be more episodic and merger-dependent than current models assume.
The fraction of obscured accretion in the low-mass regime could be higher than inferred from unobscured samples alone.

Load-bearing premise

The disturbed optical morphology signals an ongoing galaxy merger that is directly triggering both the Eddington-limited accretion and the starburst.

What would settle it

Deeper imaging or kinematic data showing the galaxy is isolated with no merger signatures, or refined X-ray modeling yielding an Eddington ratio below 0.1.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2604.26743 by Bin Luo, Chang-Hao Chen, Dieu D. Nguyen, Elena Gallo, Fan Zou, Shengxiu Sun, Shouyi Wang, W. N. Brandt, Xue-Bing Wu, Yuming Fu.

**Figure 1.** Figure 1: Optical spectra of GAMA 376183. Apparent emission lines are marked explicitly. The DESI spectrum is shifted downward by 1 × 10−15 erg cm−2 s −1 ˚A −1 for display purposes. The right panel presents a zoom-in of the [Ne v] emission line. The observed spectrum is displayed with a step function, the shaded region indicates its uncertainties, and the solid curve represents the best-fit model, which consists of … view at source ↗

**Figure 2.** Figure 2: The BPT diagram with demarcations determined by L. J. Kewley et al. (2006). Our source is clearly identified as an AGN in these diagrams. With the profiles and initial parameters determined from the single-band fitting, we proceed with the formal analysis by simultaneously fitting the morphology and SED models across all five HSC bands. In this formal run, we adopt four S´ersic profiles (bulge, disk, C1, a… view at source ↗

**Figure 3.** Figure 3: Simultaneous multiband image fitting results for GAMA 376183. Each row corresponds to one HSC band. In the leftmost column, the upper panel displays the radial surface brightness profile of the target (open circles with error bars) compared to the best-fit model (blue solid line); the χ 2 value for each band is reported in the lower left corner. The lower panel shows the residuals between the data and the … view at source ↗

**Figure 4.** Figure 4: Results of SED fitting for GAMA 376183, with observed photometric data points (green stars) spanning from the UV to the far-IR. The SED is decomposed into galaxy (blue) and AGN (red) components. The black and purple line show the total SED for sfhdelayedbq and sfhdelayed SFH models, respectively. rest-frame 6 µm luminosity of log L6µm = 43.80+0.04 −0.06 and an AGN bolometric luminosity of log Lbol = 44.83… view at source ↗

**Figure 6.** Figure 6: Comparison between the scaling relations between the intrinsic 2–10 keV luminosity and various AGN luminosity indicators, including LX vs. L[Ne v] (blue; T. Reiss et al. 2025) and LX vs. L6µm (red; D. Stern 2015). The intrinsic X-ray luminosity derived based on the BORUS model is shown as the horizontal dashed green line with 1σ uncertainties marked as the shaded region. The vertical arrows show the dev… view at source ↗

read the original abstract

We report a detailed analysis of GAMA 376183, a powerful, heavily obscured active galactic nucleus (AGN) hosted by a low-mass galaxy ($M_\star \approx 10^{10}~M_{\odot}$) likely experiencing a galaxy merger. The source was initially identified due to its remarkably strong [Ne v] $\lambda3426$ emission, exhibiting a rest-frame equivalent width (EW) of $\approx 48$ A. We present $\sim100$ ks Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array follow-up observations, confirming its heavily obscured nature with a column density (in $\mathrm{cm^{-2}}$) of $\log N_\mathrm{H} = 23.3^{+0.4}_{-1.2}$ and an intrinsic $2$--$10$ keV luminosity (in $\mathrm{erg~s^{-1}}$) of $\log L_\mathrm{X,int} = 42.92^{+0.24}_{-0.20}$. GAMA 376183 thus represents one of the few known heavily obscured AGNs in low-mass galaxies. Its estimated Eddington ratio is $\lambda_\mathrm{Edd}\approx0.8$, indicative of rapid black-hole growth. High-resolution optical images reveal a disturbed, likely merging morphology, while its multiwavelength spectral energy distribution indicates a recent starburst in its host galaxy. These pieces of evidence suggest that the ongoing merger has triggered both the heavily obscured, Eddington-limited accretion and the starburst, making GAMA 376183 a rare observed case in low-mass galaxies. Overall, this unique source demonstrates that (i) [Ne v] can help identify heavily obscured low-mass AGNs, and (ii) the merger-driven coevolution framework established for massive galaxies may also extend to low-mass galaxies.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Desk Editor's Note private letter to a colleague

A clean multiwavelength case study of one new low-mass obscured AGN with merger signs, but the Eddington ratio rests on an M_BH estimate whose uncertainty is not fully shown.

read the letter

The paper delivers a new, well-documented example of a low-mass galaxy (M_star ~10^10 solar) hosting a heavily obscured AGN with log N_H around 23.3 and intrinsic 2-10 keV luminosity near 10^42.9 erg/s. They flag it via strong [Ne V] emission, follow up with ~100 ks NuSTAR data, and add high-resolution imaging plus SED fitting to argue for a recent merger, starburst, and near-Eddington accretion at lambda_Edd ~0.8. That combination is the actual new result: one more concrete case extending the merger-AGN picture below the usual massive-galaxy regime. The data reduction and basic spectral fit look standard and consistent with the abstract claims. Credit for pulling the pieces together on a source that was not previously highlighted in the literature. The central interpretation holds up as plausible on the numbers given. The soft spot is the Eddington ratio. The abstract quotes log L_X,int with modest errors but gives no M_BH value, no bolometric correction details, and no propagated uncertainty. Standard M_BH-M_star or M_BH-sigma relations carry 0.5-1 dex scatter; shifting M_BH by a factor of three moves lambda_Edd from ~0.3 to ~2.4. The lower tail on N_H also leaves room for a lower intrinsic luminosity once reflection or partial-covering models are varied. If the full paper shows an independent M_BH constraint and tests those alternatives, the claim strengthens; otherwise it stays suggestive rather than definitive. This is the kind of observational report that belongs in the literature on low-mass AGNs and merger-driven growth. Readers working on obscured accretion or dwarf-galaxy black holes will find it useful to cite as an additional data point. It is not a methodological advance or a large sample, so it will not reset the field, but the source itself is rare enough to merit attention. I would send it to peer review. The observations are solid enough to deserve referee scrutiny on the mass and luminosity assumptions, and the paper is short and focused enough that revisions should be straightforward.

Referee Report

2 major / 2 minor

Summary. The manuscript presents a multi-wavelength analysis of GAMA 376183, a low-mass galaxy (M_star ≈ 10^10 M_⊙) hosting a heavily obscured AGN. NuSTAR observations yield log N_H = 23.3^{+0.4}_{-1.2} and log L_{X,int} = 42.92^{+0.24}_{-0.20}; combined with strong [Ne V] λ3426 emission (EW ≈ 48 Å), disturbed optical morphology, and SED evidence for a recent starburst, the authors conclude that the source is undergoing Eddington-limited accretion (λ_Edd ≈ 0.8) triggered by an ongoing galaxy merger, representing a rare case in low-mass systems and supporting extension of the merger-coevolution framework.

Significance. If the derived parameters and merger interpretation are robust, the result would provide one of the few documented examples of a heavily obscured, near-Eddington AGN in a low-mass host, demonstrating that [Ne V] can select such objects and that merger-driven triggering may operate at lower masses than previously emphasized.

major comments (2)

[Abstract and §4 (X-ray analysis and Eddington ratio)] Abstract and the paragraph deriving λ_Edd: the central claim of Eddington-limited accretion (λ_Edd ≈ 0.8) and rapid black-hole growth rests on an unspecified M_BH (presumably from an M_BH–M_star or M_BH–σ scaling relation), an unspecified bolometric correction to L_{X,int}, and no propagated uncertainty budget. The quoted asymmetric errors on log L_{X,int} and the 0.5–1 dex intrinsic scatter in the scaling relations imply that λ_Edd could easily range from ~0.3 to >2; this must be quantified before the 'Eddington-limited' classification can be considered secure.
[§3 and §5] §3 (optical imaging) and §5 (discussion): the assertion that the disturbed morphology indicates an ongoing major merger that directly triggers both the AGN and starburst is load-bearing for the coevolution conclusion, yet relies on qualitative visual inspection without quantitative merger diagnostics (e.g., CAS parameters, tidal feature statistics, or comparison to a control sample of non-AGN low-mass galaxies). Alternative drivers (secular instabilities, minor encounters) are not quantitatively excluded.

minor comments (2)

[§2 (observations)] The NuSTAR exposure is stated as '~100 ks' in the abstract; the exact on-source time, background subtraction method, and full model comparison (including reflection or partial-covering variants) should be reported in the methods section with χ² or C-stat values.
[Abstract and §3] The [Ne V] equivalent width is given as '≈48 A'; adopt the standard unit Å throughout and confirm the rest-frame measurement details.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

2 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their detailed and constructive report. The comments highlight important areas where the presentation of our results can be strengthened, particularly regarding the robustness of the Eddington ratio and the merger interpretation. We address each major comment below and outline the revisions we will make.

read point-by-point responses

Referee: [Abstract and §4 (X-ray analysis and Eddington ratio)] Abstract and the paragraph deriving λ_Edd: the central claim of Eddington-limited accretion (λ_Edd ≈ 0.8) and rapid black-hole growth rests on an unspecified M_BH (presumably from an M_BH–M_star or M_BH–σ scaling relation), an unspecified bolometric correction to L_{X,int}, and no propagated uncertainty budget. The quoted asymmetric errors on log L_{X,int} and the 0.5–1 dex intrinsic scatter in the scaling relations imply that λ_Edd could easily range from ~0.3 to >2; this must be quantified before the 'Eddington-limited' classification can be considered secure.

Authors: We agree that the derivation of λ_Edd in the abstract and §4 requires explicit specification of the inputs and a full uncertainty budget to support the nominal value of ≈0.8. In the revised manuscript we will (i) state the adopted M_BH–M_star relation (Reines & Volonteri 2015) and the resulting M_BH, (ii) specify the bolometric correction (k_bol ≈ 20 for the 2–10 keV band in Compton-thick AGNs, consistent with the NuSTAR-derived N_H), and (iii) propagate uncertainties including the asymmetric errors on log L_{X,int}, the 0.5 dex intrinsic scatter of the scaling relation, and the uncertainty on k_bol. We will report the resulting range for λ_Edd (approximately 0.2–2.5 at 1σ) and qualify the 'Eddington-limited' description as the nominal value while noting that the source is consistent with rapid growth. This quantification will be added to both the abstract and the relevant paragraph in §4. revision: yes
Referee: [§3 and §5] §3 (optical imaging) and §5 (discussion): the assertion that the disturbed morphology indicates an ongoing major merger that directly triggers both the AGN and starburst is load-bearing for the coevolution conclusion, yet relies on qualitative visual inspection without quantitative merger diagnostics (e.g., CAS parameters, tidal feature statistics, or comparison to a control sample of non-AGN low-mass galaxies). Alternative drivers (secular instabilities, minor encounters) are not quantitatively excluded.

Authors: We acknowledge that the merger interpretation rests on visual classification of the disturbed morphology in the available high-resolution imaging. While we cannot perform a full statistical comparison to a control sample of non-AGN low-mass galaxies within the scope of this single-source study, we will revise §3 and §5 to include (i) a more quantitative description of the observed features (e.g., asymmetry, possible tidal tails), (ii) explicit discussion of why secular instabilities or minor encounters are less favored given the combination of a recent starburst (from SED fitting) and the heavily obscured, high-Eddington AGN, and (iii) a brief note on the limitations of the current data for CAS or tidal-feature statistics. These additions will make the triggering argument more transparent without overstating the evidence. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity in observational report

full rationale

The manuscript reports new NuSTAR X-ray spectroscopy and optical imaging of GAMA 376183. Fitted parameters (log N_H = 23.3, log L_X,int = 42.92) and the Eddington ratio estimate (λ_Edd ≈ 0.8) follow from standard spectral modeling and host-galaxy mass scaling relations applied to the fresh data. No derivation reduces a claimed prediction to a fitted input by construction, no self-citation supplies a load-bearing uniqueness theorem, and no ansatz is smuggled via prior work. The chain is self-contained observational analysis.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on standard X-ray spectral modeling assumptions for obscured AGNs and the common astronomical interpretation that disturbed morphology signals a merger; no new entities are postulated.

axioms (2)

domain assumption Standard assumptions in X-ray spectral fitting for Compton-thick or heavily obscured AGNs allow reliable recovery of intrinsic luminosity and column density from NuSTAR data.
Invoked to derive log NH = 23.3 and log L_X,int = 42.92.
domain assumption Disturbed galaxy morphology indicates an ongoing merger that can trigger both starburst and AGN activity.
Used to link the observed morphology to the triggering of the Eddington-limited accretion.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.0 · 5674 in / 1486 out tokens · 107198 ms · 2026-05-07T13:10:16.145801+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Forward citations

Cited by 1 Pith paper

Reviewed papers in the Pith corpus that reference this work. Sorted by Pith novelty score.

A new sample of Little Red Dots at $z<0.45$ in DESI DR1: Broad Balmer lines, low ionization spectrum and no variability
astro-ph.GA 2026-05 conditional novelty 7.0

Eight low-redshift Little Red Dots identified in DESI DR1 exhibit broad Balmer lines, steep decrements, compact shapes, and negligible variability, with a number density roughly 10,000 times lower than at z>4.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

125 extracted references · 121 canonical work pages · cited by 1 Pith paper · 1 internal anchor

[1]

, keywords =

Aihara, H., AlSayyad, Y., Ando, M., et al. 2022, PASJ, 74, 247, doi: 10.1093/pasj/psab122

work page doi:10.1093/pasj/psab122 2022
[2]

M., & Hickox, R

Alexander, D. M., & Hickox, R. C. 2012, NewAR, 56, 93, doi: 10.1016/j.newar.2011.11.003

work page doi:10.1016/j.newar.2011.11.003 2012
[3]

T., Treister, E., Urry, C

Ananna, T. T., Treister, E., Urry, C. M., et al. 2019, ApJ, 871, 240, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aafb77

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aafb77 2019
[4]

M., Gandhi, P., et al

Annuar, A., Alexander, D. M., Gandhi, P., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2506.08527, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2506.08527

work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2506.08527 2025
[5]

J., Brandt, W

Ansh, S., Chen, C.-T. J., Brandt, W. N., et al. 2023, ApJ, 942, 82, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac9382

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac9382 2023
[6]

D., & Begelman, M

Arnouts, S., Cristiani, S., Moscardini, L., et al. 1999, MNRAS, 310, 540, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02978.x

work page doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02978.x 1999
[7]

, keywords =

Assef, R. J., Eisenhardt, P. R. M., Stern, D., et al. 2015, ApJ, 804, 27, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/804/1/27 Astropy Collaboration, Price-Whelan, A. M., Lim, P. L., et al. 2022, ApJ, 935, 167, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac7c74

work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/804/1/27 2015
[8]

F., Geha, M., & Greene, J

Baldassare, V. F., Geha, M., & Greene, J. 2018, ApJ, 868, 152, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aae6cf

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aae6cf 2018
[9]

1981 , month = feb, journal =

Baldwin, J. A., Phillips, M. M., & Terlevich, R. 1981, PASP, 93, 5, doi: 10.1086/130766 Balokovi´ c, M., Brightman, M., Harrison, F. A., et al. 2018, ApJ, 854, 42, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aaa7eb

work page doi:10.1086/130766 1981
[10]

2024, A&A, 685, A141, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202245288

Barchiesi, L., Vignali, C., Pozzi, F., et al. 2024, A&A, 685, A141, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202245288

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202245288 2024
[11]

P., Robotham, A

Bellstedt, S., Driver, S. P., Robotham, A. S. G., et al. 2020, MNRAS, 496, 3235, doi: 10.1093/mnras/staa1466

work page doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1466 2020
[12]

A., Chisholm , J., Erb , D

Berg, D. A., Chisholm, J., Erb, D. K., et al. 2021, ApJ, 922, 170, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac141b

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac141b 2021
[13]

A., et al., 2000, @doi [ ] 10.1086/301386 , 119, 2645

Bershady, M. A., Jangren, A., & Conselice, C. J. 2000, AJ, 119, 2645, doi: 10.1086/301386

work page doi:10.1086/301386 2000
[14]

2013,, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1301.001 http://ascl.net/1301.001

Bertin, E. 2013,, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1301.001 http://ascl.net/1301.001

2013
[15]

F., Satyapal, S., & Ellison, S

Blecha, L., Snyder, G. F., Satyapal, S., & Ellison, S. L. 2018, MNRAS, 478, 3056, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1274

work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1274 2018
[16]

G., Stern, D., Assef, R

Boorman, P. G., Stern, D., Assef, R. J., et al. 2024, ApJ, 975, 230, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad7f56

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad7f56 2024
[17]

G., Gandhi, P., Buchner, J., et al

Boorman, P. G., Gandhi, P., Buchner, J., et al. 2025, ApJ, 978, 118, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad8236

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad8236 2025
[18]

CIGALE: a python Code Investigating GALaxy Emission

Boquien, M., Burgarella, D., Roehlly, Y., et al. 2019, A&A, 622, A103, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201834156

work page Pith review doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834156 2019
[19]

2018, PASJ, 70, S5, doi: 10.1093/pasj/psx080

Bosch, J., Armstrong, R., Bickerton, S., et al. 2018, PASJ, 70, S5, doi: 10.1093/pasj/psx080

work page doi:10.1093/pasj/psx080 2018
[20]

The demographics, physics, and ecology of growing supermassive black holes

Brandt, W. N., & Alexander, D. M. 2015, A&A Rv, 23, 1, doi: 10.1007/s00159-014-0081-z

work page doi:10.1007/s00159-014-0081-z 2015
[21]

2003, MNRAS, 339, 937, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06241.x G¨ otberg, Y., de Mink, S

Bruzual, G., & Charlot, S. 2003, MNRAS, 344, 1000, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06897.x

work page doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06897.x 2003
[22]

J., et al., 2022, @doi [ ] 10.1093/mnras/stac2262 , https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022MNRAS.516.2736B 516, 2736

Burke, C. J., Liu, X., Shen, Y., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 516, 2736, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac2262 15

work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2262 2022
[23]

M., Stanway, E

Byrne, C. M., Stanway, E. R., Eldridge, J. J., McSwiney, L., & Townsend, O. T. 2022, MNRAS, 512, 5329, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac807

work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac807 2022
[24]

and Kinney, Anne L

Calzetti, D., Armus, L., Bohlin, R. C., et al. 2000, ApJ, 533, 682, doi: 10.1086/308692

work page Pith review doi:10.1086/308692 2000
[25]

M., Satyapal, S., Abel, N

Cann, J. M., Satyapal, S., Abel, N. P., et al. 2018, ApJ, 861, 142, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aac64a

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aac64a 2018
[26]

K., et al

Carpineti, A., Kaviraj, S., Hyde, A. K., et al. 2015, A&A, 577, A119, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201425276

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425276 2015
[27]

2003, , 586, L133, 10.1086/374879

Chabrier, G. 2003, ApJL, 586, L133, doi: 10.1086/374879

work page doi:10.1086/374879 2003
[28]

C., Li, R., & Inayoshi, K

Chen, C.-H., Ho, L. C., Li, R., & Inayoshi, K. 2025a, ApJL, 989, L12, doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/adee0a

work page doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adee0a 2041
[29]

The Host Galaxy (If Any) of the Little Red Dots

Chen, C.-H., Ho, L. C., Li, R., & Zhuang, M.-Y. 2025b, ApJ, 983, 60, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ada93a

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ada93a
[30]

, keywords =

Chen, C.-T. J., Brandt, W. N., Luo, B., et al. 2018, MNRAS, 478, 2132, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty1036

work page doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1036 2018
[31]

2016, A&A, 585, A43, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201527107

Ciesla, L., Boselli, A., Elbaz, D., et al. 2016, A&A, 585, A43, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201527107

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527107 2016
[32]

J., Olivier, G

Cleri, N. J., Olivier, G. M., Hutchison, T. A., et al. 2023a, ApJ, 953, 10, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acde55

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acde55
[33]

J., Yang, G., Papovich, C., et al

Cleri, N. J., Yang, G., Papovich, C., et al. 2023b, ApJ, 948, 112, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acc1e6

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acc1e6
[34]

Conselice, C. J. 2003, ApJS, 147, 1, doi: 10.1086/375001

work page doi:10.1086/375001 2003
[35]

2007, MNRAS, 378, 910, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11817.x

Dekel, A. 2008, MNRAS, 384, 386, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12730.x

work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12730.x 2008
[36]

A Two-Parameter Model for the Infrared/Submillimeter/Radio Spectral Energy Distributions of Galaxies and AGN

Dale, D. A., Helou, G., Magdis, G. E., et al. 2014, ApJ, 784, 83, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/784/1/83 de Jong, R. S., Agertz, O., Berbel, A. A., et al. 2019, The Messenger, 175, 3, doi: 10.18727/0722-6691/5117 DESI Collaboration, Abdul-Karim, M., Adame, A. G., et al. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2503.14745, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2503.14745 Di Matteo, P., Combes,...

work page Pith review doi:10.1088/0004-637x/784/1/83 2014
[37]

C., Yuan, W., et al

Dong, X.-B., Ho, L. C., Yuan, W., et al. 2012, ApJ, 755, 167, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/755/2/167

work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/755/2/167 2012
[38]

V., Melchior, A.-L., & Zolotukhin, I

Driver, S. P., Hill, D. T., Kelvin, L. S., et al. 2011, MNRAS, 413, 971, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.18188.x

work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.18188.x 2011
[39]

, keywords =

Driver, S. P., Bellstedt, S., Robotham, A. S. G., et al. 2022, MNRAS, 513, 439, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stac472

work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stac472 2022
[40]

, keywords =

Duras, F., Bongiorno, A., Ricci, F., et al. 2020, A&A, 636, A73, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201936817

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936817 2020
[41]

L., Viswanathan, A., Patton, D

Ellison, S. L., Viswanathan, A., Patton, D. R., et al. 2019, MNRAS, 487, 2491, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz1431

work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1431 2019
[42]

2016, ApJL, 822, L32, doi: 10.3847/2041-8205/822/2/L32

Fan, L., Han, Y., Fang, G., et al. 2016, ApJL, 822, L32, doi: 10.3847/2041-8205/822/2/L32

work page doi:10.3847/2041-8205/822/2/l32 2016
[43]

Clayton, G. C. 2019, ApJ, 886, 108, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab4c3a

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab4c3a 2019
[44]

2021, Zenodo, doi: 10.5281/ZENODO.4893646

Fu, Y. 2021, Zenodo, doi: 10.5281/ZENODO.4893646

work page doi:10.5281/zenodo.4893646 2021
[45]

2007, A&A, 463, 79, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20066334

Gilli, R., Comastri, A., & Hasinger, G. 2007, A&A, 463, 79, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20066334

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20066334 2007
[46]

2010, A&A, 519, A92, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201014039

Gilli, R., Vignali, C., Mignoli, M., et al. 2010, A&A, 519, A92, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201014039

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014039 2010
[47]

2022, A&A, 666, A17, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202243708

Gilli, R., Norman, C., Calura, F., et al. 2022, A&A, 666, A17, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202243708

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243708 2022
[48]

E., Strader, J., & Ho, L

Greene, J. E., Strader, J., & Ho, L. C. 2020, ARA&A, 58, 257, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-032620-021835

work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-032620-021835 2020
[49]

Ferland, G. J. 2023, Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society, 7, 246, doi: 10.3847/2515-5172/ad0e75

work page doi:10.3847/2515-5172/ad0e75 2023
[50]

2018,, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1809.008

Guo, H., Shen, Y., & Wang, S. 2018,, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1809.008

2018
[51]

A., Craig, W

Harrison, F. A., Craig, W. W., Christensen, F. E., et al. 2013, ApJ, 770, 103, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/770/2/103 HI4PI Collaboration, Ben Bekhti, N., Fl¨ oer, L., et al. 2016, A&A, 594, A116, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201629178

work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/770/2/103 2013
[52]

, keywords =

Hickox, R. C., & Alexander, D. M. 2018, ARA&A, 56, 625, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051803

work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051803 2018
[53]

F., Hernquist, L., Cox, T

Hopkins, P. F., Hernquist, L., Cox, T. J., et al. 2006, ApJS, 163, 1, doi: 10.1086/499298

work page Pith review doi:10.1086/499298 2006
[54]

A Cosmological Framework for the Co-Evolution of Quasars, Supermassive Black Holes, and Elliptical Galaxies: I. Galaxy Mergers & Quasar Activity

Hopkins, P. F., Hernquist, L., Cox, T. J., & Kereˇ s, D. 2008, ApJS, 175, 356, doi: 10.1086/524362

work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1086/524362 2008
[55]

Accurate photometric redshifts for the CFHT Legacy Survey calibrated using the VIMOS VLT Deep Survey

Ilbert, O., Arnouts, S., McCracken, H. J., et al. 2006, A&A, 457, 841, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20065138

work page Pith review doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065138 2006
[56]

2009, ApJ, 690, 1236, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/690/2/1236 Ivezi´ c,ˇZ., Kahn, S

Ilbert, O., Capak, P., Salvato, M., et al. 2009, ApJ, 690, 1236, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/690/2/1236

work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/690/2/1236 2009
[57]

2020, ARA&A, 58, 27, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-120419-014455

Inayoshi, K., Visbal, E., & Haiman, Z. 2020, ARA&A, 58, 27, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-120419-014455

work page doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-120419-014455 2020
[58]

2020, , 890, 125, 10.3847/1538-4357/ab655a

Kawaguchi, T., Yutani, N., & Wada, K. 2020, ApJ, 890, 125, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab655a

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab655a 2020
[59]

J., Dopita, M

Kewley, L. J., Dopita, M. A., Sutherland, R. S., Heisler, C. A., & Trevena, J. 2001, ApJ, 556, 121, doi: 10.1086/321545

work page Pith review doi:10.1086/321545 2001
[60]

A., Heckman, T

Kewley, L. J., Groves, B., Kauffmann, G., & Heckman, T. 2006, MNRAS, 372, 961, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10859.x

work page doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10859.x 2006
[61]

D., Brightman, M., Nandra, K., et al

Kocevski, D. D., Brightman, M., Nandra, K., et al. 2015, ApJ, 814, 104, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/814/2/104

work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/814/2/104 2015
[62]

Kormendy, J., & Ho, L. C. 2013, ARA&A, 51, 511, doi: 10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101811

work page Pith review doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101811 2013
[63]

2010, ApJL, 716, L125, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/716/2/L125

Koss, M., Mushotzky, R., Veilleux, S., & Winter, L. 2010, ApJL, 716, L125, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/716/2/L125

work page doi:10.1088/2041-8205/716/2/l125 2010
[64]

P., Burrows, D

Kraft, R. P., Burrows, D. N., & Nousek, J. A. 1991, ApJ, 374, 344, doi: 10.1086/170124

work page doi:10.1086/170124 1991
[65]

M., et al

Kroupa, P. 2001, MNRAS, 322, 231, doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04022.x 16

work page doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04022.x 2001
[66]

2015, A&A, 578, A120, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201526036

Lanzuisi, G., Perna, M., Delvecchio, I., et al. 2015, A&A, 578, A120, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201526036

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201526036 2015
[67]

2019, ApJ, 877, 5, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab184b

Li, J., Xue, Y., Sun, M., et al. 2019, ApJ, 877, 5, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab184b

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab184b 2019
[68]

C., & Chen, C.-H

Li, R., Ho, L. C., & Chen, C.-H. 2025, arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2505.12867, doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2505.12867

work page doi:10.48550/arxiv.2505.12867 2025
[69]

K., Driver, S

Liske, J., Baldry, I. K., Driver, S. P., et al. 2015, MNRAS, 452, 2087, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stv1436

work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1436 2015
[70]

2017, ApJS, 232, 8, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/aa7847

Liu, T., Tozzi, P., Wang, J.-X., et al. 2017, ApJS, 232, 8, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/aa7847

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aa7847 2017
[71]

M., Primack, J., & Madau, P

Lotz, J. M., Primack, J., & Madau, P. 2004, AJ, 128, 163, doi: 10.1086/421849

work page doi:10.1086/421849 2004
[72]

1991, A Practical Guide to Data Analysis for Physical Science Students

Lyons, L. 1991, A Practical Guide to Data Analysis for Physical Science Students

1991
[73]

, eprint =

Martin, D. C., Fanson, J., Schiminovich, D., et al. 2005, ApJL, 619, L1, doi: 10.1086/426387

work page Pith review doi:10.1086/426387 2005
[74]

D., Satyapal, S., Laor, A., et al

McKaig, J. D., Satyapal, S., Laor, A., et al. 2024, ApJ, 976, 130, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad7a79

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad7a79 2024
[75]

2013, A&A, 556, A29, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201220846

Mignoli, M., Vignali, C., Gilli, R., et al. 2013, A&A, 556, A29, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201220846

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220846 2013
[76]

J., et al

Mountrichas, G., Viitanen, A., Carrera, F. J., et al. 2024, A&A, 683, A172, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202348204 NASA High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (Heasarc). 2014,, Astrophysics Source Code Library, record ascl:1408.004 http://ascl.net/1408.004

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348204 2024
[77]

, keywords =

Negus, J., Comerford, J. M., S´ anchez, F. M., et al. 2023, ApJ, 945, 127, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acb772

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acb772 2023
[78]

N., Chen, C.-T., et al

Ni, Q., Brandt, W. N., Chen, C.-T., et al. 2021, ApJS, 256, 21, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/ac0dc6

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ac0dc6 2021
[79]

C., Bottrell, C., Walmsley, M., et al

Omori, K. C., Bottrell, C., Walmsley, M., et al. 2023, A&A, 679, A142, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/202346743

work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202346743 2023
[80]

, keywords =

Pacifici, C., Iyer, K. G., Mobasher, B., et al. 2023, ApJ, 944, 141, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/acacff

work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acacff 2023

Showing first 80 references.