pith. sign in

arxiv: 2605.29150 · v1 · pith:DPB2EO4Jnew · submitted 2026-05-27 · 🌌 astro-ph.EP · physics.ao-ph· physics.geo-ph· physics.space-ph

Shock wave formation in the thermosphere by an earthgrazing fireball: Empirical evidence for volatile-enhanced hydrodynamic shielding

Elizabeth A. Silber , Denis Vida , Miro Ronac Giannone , Jamie Shepherd , Sarah Albert , Daniel C. Bowman , Tammy Do , Margaret Campbell-Brown
show 2 more authors
Peter Jenniskens Reynold E. Silber
This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-29 09:22 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 🌌 astro-ph.EP physics.ao-phphysics.geo-phphysics.space-ph
keywords earthgrazing fireballhydrodynamic shieldingthermosphereinfrasound detectionvolatile releaseshock wavemeteoroid ablationrarefied flow
0
0 comments X

The pith

Volatile release lets a 45-gram meteoroid sustain a thermospheric shock wave with a 30-meter blast radius.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

This paper reports the first multi-station optical and infrasound observations of a centimeter-scale earthgrazing fireball that generated a sustained cylindrical shock near 92 km altitude. Optical data reveal early ablation and erosion at low dynamic pressures, pointing to a volatile-bearing cometary or porous chondritic composition. Infrasound arrays localize the source along a 164 km trajectory segment near perigee, and weak-shock modeling yields a blast radius of roughly 30 meters, far larger than the physical size of the roughly 45-gram nucleus. Classical gas dynamics and ablation-driven shielding alone cannot produce these signals under ambient thermospheric conditions. Volatile release supplies the extra flow-field density needed to strengthen hydrodynamic shielding, lower the local Knudsen number, and maintain a shock envelope that radiates detectable infrasound to the ground.

Core claim

The coordinated observations demonstrate that volatile release provides the additional flow-field density enhancement required to amplify hydrodynamic shielding, reduce the effective local Knudsen number, and sustain a shock envelope capable of radiating detectable infrasound from a small earthgrazing meteoroid at thermospheric altitudes.

What carries the argument

Volatile-enhanced hydrodynamic shielding, in which released volatiles increase local density to enable continuum-like flow and shock formation in rarefied thermospheric air.

If this is right

  • Small volatile-rich meteoroids can produce ground-detectable infrasound from sustained shocks at thermospheric heights.
  • Early mechanical erosion at exceptionally low dynamic pressure indicates porous, volatile-bearing material.
  • Hydrodynamic shielding can reach continuum conditions in rarefied air when volatiles supply density enhancement.
  • Earthgrazing events provide a natural laboratory for testing high-altitude shock physics under varying compositions.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same volatile-density mechanism may operate during atmospheric entry of other icy or porous small bodies from the solar system.
  • Accounting for volatile enhancement could revise models of meteoroid mass loss and acoustic signatures at high altitudes.
  • Targeted searches for additional earthgrazing fireballs with simultaneous optical and infrasound data could confirm how common this effect is.

Load-bearing premise

The infrasound detections are taken to originate from a cylindrical line source at thermospheric altitudes near 92 km rather than from lower-altitude processes or altered propagation effects.

What would settle it

If acoustic modeling or additional sensors show the source lies well below 80 km or the required blast radius shrinks to match the meteoroid size without added density from volatiles.

read the original abstract

Hydrodynamic shielding is a theoretically well-established but observationally elusive and experimentally difficult-to-replicate phenomenon with implications that extend far beyond meteor physics. Rare earthgrazing meteoroids with infrasound signatures that penetrate to the ground can be used to probe hydrodynamic shielding that leads to strong shock formation at high altitude. Here, we report the first coordinated optical and multi-station infrasound observations of a centimeter-scale earthgrazing fireball that generated sustained cylindrical line shock at thermospheric altitudes near 92 km. The event was recorded by numerous optical stations and three infrasound arrays, allowing trajectory reconstruction, ablation behavior, acoustic source localization, and shock characteristics. Optical observations indicate early mechanical erosion and ablation/evaporation at exceptionally low dynamic pressure, consistent with a cometary or a porous, volatile-bearing CM chondritic object. Independent infrasound detections localize shock generation to multiple points along a 164 km trajectory segment near perigee. Weak-shock modeling yields a consistent blast radius of ~30 m, implying an acoustic-equivalent source size far exceeding the physical dimensions of the ~45 g nucleus. We demonstrate that classical gas dynamics and ablation-driven hydrodynamic shielding alone cannot account for these observations under ambient thermospheric conditions. We show that volatile release provides the additional flow-field density enhancement required to amplify hydrodynamic shielding, reduce the effective local Knudsen number, and sustain a shock envelope capable of radiating detectable infrasound. These results demonstrate that small, volatile-rich meteoroids can transiently establish continuum-like flow in rarefied environments.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

3 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper reports the first coordinated optical and multi-station infrasound observations of a ~45 g earthgrazing fireball, reconstructing its trajectory and claiming that volatile release enables hydrodynamic shielding sufficient to sustain a cylindrical line shock at thermospheric altitudes near 92 km. Optical data show early ablation at low dynamic pressure, while infrasound localizes shock generation along a 164 km segment near perigee; weak-shock modeling yields a consistent ~30 m blast radius, which the authors argue exceeds what classical ablation-driven shielding can produce under ambient thermospheric density, thereby requiring volatile-enhanced density to reduce the local Knudsen number and radiate detectable infrasound.

Significance. If the central interpretation holds, the result supplies rare empirical evidence linking volatile content to continuum-like shock formation in rarefied flows, with direct implications for meteoroid composition inference, atmospheric entry modeling, and the physics of transitional-regime hydrodynamics. The multi-station acoustic localization combined with optical ablation constraints is a methodological strength that could be extended to other events.

major comments (3)
  1. [infrasound localization and weak-shock modeling] The localization of infrasound arrivals to a cylindrical line source at ~92 km (and the subsequent inference that volatiles are required) rests on propagation modeling whose sensitivity to winds, absorption, and refraction is not quantified; alternative lower-altitude or distributed sources could reproduce the arrivals with a smaller effective radius, removing the discrepancy that motivates the volatile mechanism.
  2. [weak-shock modeling] The ~30 m blast radius obtained from weak-shock relations is used both to characterize the source and to demonstrate that classical ablation shielding is insufficient; this creates a circular dependency in which modeling assumptions directly support the need for volatile enhancement, without reported tests of alternative source geometries or propagation parameters that could alter the radius.
  3. [optical observations and ablation behavior] Optical evidence for early mechanical erosion and ablation at exceptionally low dynamic pressure is presented as consistent with a volatile-bearing object, yet no quantitative comparison to non-volatile ablation models or error analysis on the inferred dynamic pressure is provided to establish that volatiles are required rather than merely possible.
minor comments (2)
  1. [abstract] The abstract states a 'consistent blast radius of ~30 m' but does not specify the number of independent stations or the formal uncertainty on this value.
  2. [discussion of hydrodynamic shielding] Notation for the Knudsen number and flow-field density enhancement should be defined explicitly when first introduced to aid readers outside meteor physics.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

3 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their thorough and constructive review. We address each major comment below and have revised the manuscript to incorporate additional analyses where the comments identify gaps in the original submission.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [infrasound localization and weak-shock modeling] The localization of infrasound arrivals to a cylindrical line source at ~92 km (and the subsequent inference that volatiles are required) rests on propagation modeling whose sensitivity to winds, absorption, and refraction is not quantified; alternative lower-altitude or distributed sources could reproduce the arrivals with a smaller effective radius, removing the discrepancy that motivates the volatile mechanism.

    Authors: We acknowledge that the original manuscript did not quantify the sensitivity of the propagation modeling to winds, absorption, and refraction. In the revised version we have added a new subsection that reports explicit sensitivity tests using multiple wind models, absorption coefficients within published ranges, and refraction due to temperature structure. These tests show that the multi-station arrival times are best matched by a cylindrical source near 92 km; residuals increase markedly for sources below 80 km. We also compared distributed and point-source alternatives and find that none reproduce the data as well as the thermospheric line source. The localization and the resulting need for enhanced shielding therefore remain robust. revision: yes

  2. Referee: [weak-shock modeling] The ~30 m blast radius obtained from weak-shock relations is used both to characterize the source and to demonstrate that classical ablation shielding is insufficient; this creates a circular dependency in which modeling assumptions directly support the need for volatile enhancement, without reported tests of alternative source geometries or propagation parameters that could alter the radius.

    Authors: The blast radius is obtained directly from the observed amplitudes and propagation distances via the weak-shock scaling relations; it does not depend on the physical mechanism that produced the shock. The comparison showing that classical ablation shielding is insufficient is performed separately by contrasting this radius with the size expected from the meteoroid mass and ambient density. To remove any appearance of circularity, the revision now includes explicit tests of alternative geometries (point versus line sources) and varied propagation parameters. These confirm that a source radius of order 30 m is required to match the data regardless of the shielding interpretation. revision: yes

  3. Referee: [optical observations and ablation behavior] Optical evidence for early mechanical erosion and ablation at exceptionally low dynamic pressure is presented as consistent with a volatile-bearing object, yet no quantitative comparison to non-volatile ablation models or error analysis on the inferred dynamic pressure is provided to establish that volatiles are required rather than merely possible.

    Authors: We agree that a quantitative comparison and error analysis strengthen the argument. The revised manuscript now reports uncertainties on the dynamic pressure at ablation onset propagated from the optical trajectory solution and compares these values to literature thresholds for non-volatile stony meteoroids. The observed onset lies well below those thresholds. While this supports the volatile interpretation when combined with the infrasound constraints, we note that the optical data alone demonstrate consistency rather than an absolute requirement; direct compositional evidence is unavailable for this event. revision: partial

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; derivation rests on independent optical and acoustic observations

full rationale

The paper reports optical trajectory and ablation data yielding a ~45 g meteoroid mass, separate multi-station infrasound arrivals localized to ~92 km, and weak-shock modeling applied to those arrivals to obtain a ~30 m blast radius. It then compares the modeled radius to the physical meteoroid size under ambient thermospheric density to conclude that classical ablation-driven shielding is insufficient and volatiles are required. This is a comparative inference from two distinct datasets rather than any self-definitional loop, fitted parameter renamed as prediction, or load-bearing self-citation. No equations or steps in the abstract reduce the central claim to its own inputs by construction; the modeling output is treated as an empirical constraint, not a fitted input that is then re-predicted.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 1 axioms · 0 invented entities

The claim depends on the applicability of weak-shock cylindrical-source modeling to thermospheric conditions and on the assumption that observed infrasound cannot be explained by ambient-density ablation alone.

free parameters (1)
  • blast radius = ~30 m
    Derived from weak-shock modeling and used to demonstrate that the acoustic source exceeds the physical size of the ~45 g nucleus.
axioms (1)
  • domain assumption Weak-shock modeling is valid for a cylindrical line source at thermospheric altitudes under the observed conditions.
    Invoked to obtain the blast radius that drives the conclusion that volatile enhancement is required.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5855 in / 1290 out tokens · 29311 ms · 2026-06-29T09:22:15.438619+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

89 extracted references · 84 canonical work pages · 1 internal anchor

  1. [1]

    486 Anderson, J.D.,

    Earth-grazing fireball on March 29, 2006, European Planetary Science Congress 2006, Berlin, Germany, p. 486 Anderson, J.D.,

    2006

  2. [2]

    American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), Reston, Virginia,10.2514/4.861956

    Hypersonic and high temperature gas dynamics, Second Edition ed. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), Reston, Virginia,10.2514/4.861956. Beech, M., Brown, P ., Hawkes, R.L., Ceplecha, Z., Mossman, K., Wetherill, G.,

    work page doi:10.2514/4.861956

  3. [3]

    Earth, Moon, and Planets 68, 189-197,10.1007/bf00671508

    The fall of the Peekskill meteorite: Video observations, atmospheric path, fragmentation record and orbit. Earth, Moon, and Planets 68, 189-197,10.1007/bf00671508. Behrisch, R.,

    work page doi:10.1007/bf00671508

  4. [4]

    Meteoritics & Planetary Science 33, 1113-1122,10.1111/j.1945-5100.1998.tb01716.x

    Aqueous alteration of carbonaceous chondrites: Evidence for preaccretionary alteration— A review. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 33, 1113-1122,10.1111/j.1945-5100.1998.tb01716.x. Blom, P .,

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.1998.tb01716.x 1945

  5. [5]

    The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 141, 2681-2692,10.1121/1.4980096

    Modeling and observations of an elevated, moving infrasonic source: Eigenray methods. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 141, 2681-2692,10.1121/1.4980096. Blom, P .S., Marcillo, O.E., Euler, G.G.,

    work page doi:10.1121/1.4980096

  6. [6]

    Planetary and Space Science 42, 145- 150,10.1016/0032-0633(94)90025-6

    Two components in meteor spectra. Planetary and Space Science 42, 145- 150,10.1016/0032-0633(94)90025-6. Borovička, J.,

    work page doi:10.1016/0032-0633(94)90025-6

  7. [7]

    Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 1, 249-271,10.1017/S1743921305006782

    Physical and chemical properties of meteoroids as deduced from observations. Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 1, 249-271,10.1017/S1743921305006782. Borovička, J., Ceplecha, Z.,

    work page doi:10.1017/s1743921305006782

  8. [8]

    Planetary and Space Science 182, 104849,10.1016/j.pss.2020.104849

    Physical properties of Taurid meteoroids of various sizes. Planetary and Space Science 182, 104849,10.1016/j.pss.2020.104849. Borovička, J., Spurný, P ., Koten, P .,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.pss.2020.104849 2020

  9. [9]

    A&A 473, 661-672,10.1051/0004-6361:20078131

    Atmospheric deceleration and light curves of Draconid meteors and implications for the structure of cometary dust. A&A 473, 661-672,10.1051/0004-6361:20078131. Borovička, J., Spurný, P ., Shrbený, L.,

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078131

  10. [10]

    A&A 667, A158,10.1051/0004-6361/202244197

    Data on 824 fireballs observed by the digital cameras of the European Fireball Network in 2017–2018. A&A 667, A158,10.1051/0004-6361/202244197. Boyd, I.D.,

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244197 2017

  11. [11]

    Physics of Fluids (1994-present) 7, 1757-1763 SAND2026-21651O 73 Briani, G., Pace, E., Shore, S.N., Pupillo, G., Passaro, A., Aiello, S.,

    Dissociation modeling in low density hypersonic flows of air. Physics of Fluids (1994-present) 7, 1757-1763 SAND2026-21651O 73 Briani, G., Pace, E., Shore, S.N., Pupillo, G., Passaro, A., Aiello, S.,

    1994

  12. [12]

    Fizika Meteornykh Iavlenii, , Moscow, Izdatel'stvo Nauka, 1981 Dordrecht, D

    Physics of meteoric phenomena. Fizika Meteornykh Iavlenii, , Moscow, Izdatel'stvo Nauka, 1981 Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co, Dordrecht, Holland,10.1007/978-94-009-7222-3. Brown, P ., Ceplecha, Z., Hawkes, R.L., Wetherill, G., Beech, M., Mossman, K.,

    work page doi:10.1007/978-94-009-7222-3 1981

  13. [13]

    Meteoritics & Planetary Science 46, 339-363,10.1111/j.1945-5100.2010.01167.x

    The fall of the Grimsby meteorite—I: Fireball dynamics and orbit from radar, video, and infrasound records. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 46, 339-363,10.1111/j.1945-5100.2010.01167.x. Brown, P ., Spalding, R.E., ReVelle, D.O., Tagliaferri, E., Worden, S.P .,

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2010.01167.x 1945

  14. [14]

    Nature 420, 294-296,10.1038/nature01238

    The flux of small near-Earth objects colliding with the Earth. Nature 420, 294-296,10.1038/nature01238. Buccongello, N., Brown, P .G., Vida, D., Pinhas, A.,

    work page doi:10.1038/nature01238

  15. [15]

    Icarus 410, 115907,10.1016/j.icarus.2023.115907

    A physical survey of meteoroid streams: Comparing cometary reservoirs. Icarus 410, 115907,10.1016/j.icarus.2023.115907. Campbell-Brown, M.D., Koschny, D.,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2023.115907 2023

  16. [16]

    Astronomy & Astrophysics 418, 751-758,10.1051/0004-6361:20041001-1

    Model of the ablation of faint meteors. Astronomy & Astrophysics 418, 751-758,10.1051/0004-6361:20041001-1. Campbell-Burns, P ., Kacerek, R.,

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041001-1

  17. [17]

    (Eds.), Infrasound Monitoring for Atmospheric Studies

    Worldwide Observations of Infrasonic Waves, in: Le Pichon, A., Blanc, E., Hauchecorne, A. (Eds.), Infrasound Monitoring for Atmospheric Studies. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 185-234,10.1007/978-1-4020-9508-5_6. Ceplecha, Z.,

    work page doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9508-5_6

  18. [18]

    Astronomical Institutes of Czechoslovakia, Bulletin, vol. 30, no. 6, 1979, p. 349-356. 30, 349-356 Ceplecha, Z.,

    1979

  19. [19]

    Space Science Reviews 84, 327-471,10.1023/A:1005069928850

    Meteor Phenomena and Bodies. Space Science Reviews 84, 327-471,10.1023/A:1005069928850. Ceplecha, Z., Brown, P ., Hawkes, R.L., Wetherill, G., Beech, M., Mossman, K.,

    work page doi:10.1023/a:1005069928850

  20. [20]

    Earth, Moon, and Planets 71, 395-404,10.1007/bf00117543

    Video observations, atmospheric path, orbit and fragmentation record of the fall of the Peekskill meteorite. Earth, Moon, and Planets 71, 395-404,10.1007/bf00117543. Cercignani, C.,

    work page doi:10.1007/bf00117543

  21. [21]

    Pure and Applied Geophysics,10.1007/s00024-025-03835-7

    Effect of a Fine-Scale Layered Structure of the Atmosphere on Infrasound Signals from Fragmenting Meteoroids. Pure and Applied Geophysics,10.1007/s00024-025-03835-7. SAND2026-21651O 74 Chunchuzov, I.P ., Popov, O.E., Silber, E.A., Kulichkov, S.N.,

    work page doi:10.1007/s00024-025-03835-7

  22. [22]

    Icarus, 117007,10.1016/j.icarus.2026.117007

    Multi-arrival infrasound from meteoroids: Fragmentation signatures versus propagation effects in a fine-scale layered atmosphere. Icarus, 117007,10.1016/j.icarus.2026.117007. Colas, F ., Zanda, B., Bouley, S., Jeanne, S., Malgoyre, A., Birlan, M., Blanpain, C., Gattacceca, J., Jorda, L., Lecubin, J., Marmo, C., Rault, J.L., Vaubaillon, J., Vernazza, P ., ...

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2026.117007 2026

  23. [23]

    Science 171, 565- 567,10.1126/science.171.3971.565

    Sound from Apollo Rockets in Space. Science 171, 565- 567,10.1126/science.171.3971.565. Cronin, J.R., Chang, S.,

    work page doi:10.1126/science.171.3971.565

  24. [24]

    (Eds.), The Chemistry of Life’s Origins

    Organic Matter in Meteorites: Molecular and Isotopic Analyses of the Murchison Meteorite, in: Greenberg, J.M., Mendoza-Gómez, C.X., Pirronello, V . (Eds.), The Chemistry of Life’s Origins. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 209-258,10.1007/978-94-011-1936-8_9. Drob, D.P ., Picone, J.M., Garces, M.,

    work page doi:10.1007/978-94-011-1936-8_9 1936

  25. [25]

    Journal of Geophysical Research 108, 1-12,10.1029/2002JD003307

    Global morphology of infrasound propagation. Journal of Geophysical Research 108, 1-12,10.1029/2002JD003307. Ens, T.A., Brown, P .G., Edwards, W.N., Silber, E.A.,

    work page doi:10.1029/2002jd003307

  26. [26]

    Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 80, 208-229,10.1016/j.jastp.2012.01.018

    Infrasound production by bolides: A global statistical study. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 80, 208-229,10.1016/j.jastp.2012.01.018. Evans, L.B., Bass, H.E., Sutherland, L.C.,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2012.01.018 2012

  27. [27]

    The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 51, 1565-1575,10.1121/1.1913000

    Atmospheric Absorption of Sound: Theoretical Predictions. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 51, 1565-1575,10.1121/1.1913000. Guinan, E., Austin, T.J., O’Rourke, J.G., Izenberg, N.G., Silber, E.A., Trembath-Reichert, E.,

    work page doi:10.1121/1.1913000

  28. [28]

    Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 131, e2025JE009296,https://doi.org/10.1029/2025JE009296

    A Panspermia Origin for Venus Cloud Life. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 131, e2025JE009296,https://doi.org/10.1029/2025JE009296. Hatty, I.R., Sansom, E.K., Devillepoix, H.A.R., Jansen-Sturgeon, T., Towner, M.C., Clemente, I.,

    work page doi:10.1029/2025je009296

  29. [29]

    Icarus 455, 117105,10.1016/j.icarus.2026.117105

    Tracking the untrackable: Reconstructing a Soyuz-2.1b re-entry trajectory using inter-disciplinary observations. Icarus 455, 117105,10.1016/j.icarus.2026.117105. Hawkins, G.S., Lindblad, B.-A., Southworth, R.B.,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2026.117105 2026

  30. [30]

    Hoang, T., Lee, H.,

    The NCPAG2S command line client,10.5281/zenodo.13345069. Hoang, T., Lee, H.,

    work page doi:10.5281/zenodo.13345069

  31. [31]

    The Astrophysical Journal 896, 144,10.3847/1538-4357/ab9609

    Rotational Disruption of Dust Grains by Mechanical Torques for High-velocity Gas– Grain Collisions. The Astrophysical Journal 896, 144,10.3847/1538-4357/ab9609. Hobler, G., Bradley, R.M., Urbassek, H.M.,

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab9609

  32. [32]

    Physical Review B 93, 205443,10.1103/PhysRevB.93.205443

    Probing the limitations of Sigmund's model of spatially resolved sputtering using Monte Carlo simulations. Physical Review B 93, 205443,10.1103/PhysRevB.93.205443. Hocking, W.K., Silber, R.E., Plane, J.M.C., Feng, W., Garbanzo-Salas, M.,

    work page doi:10.1103/physrevb.93.205443

  33. [33]

    Decay times of transitionally dense specularly reflecting meteor trails and potential chemical impact on trail lifetimes. Ann. Geophys. 34, 1119-1144,10.5194/angeo-34-1119-2016. Hulfeld, L., Küchlin, S., Jenny, P .,

    work page doi:10.5194/angeo-34-1119-2016 2016

  34. [34]

    Meteoritics & Planetary Science 60, 928-973,10.1111/maps.14321

    Review of asteroid, meteor, and meteorite-type links. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 60, 928-973,10.1111/maps.14321. Jenniskens, P ., Stenbaek-Nielsen, H.C.,

    work page doi:10.1111/maps.14321

  35. [35]

    (Eds.), Leonid Storm Research

    Meteors: A Delivery Mechanism of Organic Matter to the Early Earth, in: Jenniskens, P ., Rietmeijer, F ., Brosch, SAND2026-21651O 76 N., Fonda, M. (Eds.), Leonid Storm Research. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 57-70,10.1007/978-94- 017-2071-7_5. Jones, W.,

    work page doi:10.1007/978-94- 2071

  36. [36]

    A&A 530, A113,10.1051/0004-6361/201116431

    Bulk density of small meteoroids. A&A 530, A113,10.1051/0004-6361/201116431. Kornegay, W.M.,

    work page doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201116431

  37. [37]

    MIT, Lexington, MA,10.21236/AD0463164

    Production and propagation of spherical shock waves at low ambient pressures. MIT, Lexington, MA,10.21236/AD0463164. Krueger, F .R., Kissel, J.,

    work page doi:10.21236/ad0463164

  38. [38]

    Naturwissenschaften 74, 312-316,10.1007/BF00367925

    The chemical composition of the dust of comet P/Halley as measured by “PUMA” on board VEGA-1. Naturwissenschaften 74, 312-316,10.1007/BF00367925. Kustova, E.V ., Nagnibeda, E.A., Shevelev, Y .D., Syzranova, N.G.,

    work page doi:10.1007/bf00367925

  39. [39]

    Shock Waves 21, 273-287,10.1007/s00193- 011-0324-0

    Comparison of different models for non-equilibrium CO2 flows in a shock layer near a blunt body. Shock Waves 21, 273-287,10.1007/s00193- 011-0324-0. Lauretta, D., Balram-Knutson, S., Beshore, E., Boynton, W., Drouet d’Aubigny, C., DellaGiustina, D., Enos, H., Golish, D., Hergenrother, C., Howell, E.,

    work page doi:10.1007/s00193-

  40. [40]

    Meteoritics & Planetary Science 58, 1760- 1772,10.1111/maps.14099

    The water content of CM carbonaceous chondrite falls and finds, and their susceptibility to terrestrial contamination. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 58, 1760- 1772,10.1111/maps.14099. Lin, S.C.,

    work page doi:10.1111/maps.14099

  41. [41]

    The Astrophysical Journal 837, 112,10.3847/1538-4357/aa5cb5

    Experimental Simulation of Meteorite Ablation during Earth Entry Using a Plasma Wind Tunnel. The Astrophysical Journal 837, 112,10.3847/1538-4357/aa5cb5. Masoud, M., El-Khalafawy, T.A., Souprunenko, V .A.,

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa5cb5

  42. [42]

    Nuclear Fusion 9, 49,10.1088/0029-5515/9/1/005

    High-speed shock-wave investigation in rarefied gas. Nuclear Fusion 9, 49,10.1088/0029-5515/9/1/005. McDonnell, J.A.M., Lamy, P .L., Pankiewicz, G.S.,

    work page doi:10.1088/0029-5515/9/1/005

  43. [43]

    International Astronomical Union Colloquium 116, 1043-1073,10.1017/S0252921100012811

    Physical Properties of Cometary Dust. International Astronomical Union Colloquium 116, 1043-1073,10.1017/S0252921100012811. McFadden, L., Brown, P ., Vida, D., Spurný, P .,

    work page doi:10.1017/s0252921100012811

  44. [44]

    Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 216, 105587,10.1016/j.jastp.2021.105587

    Fireball characteristics derivable from acoustic data. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 216, 105587,10.1016/j.jastp.2021.105587. Molau, S., Barentsen, G.,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2021.105587 2021

  45. [46]

    LPI, The Woodlands, Texas, p

    Preliminary Spectroscopic and Dynamical Analysis of an Earth-Grazer Fireball Observed on December 24, 2014, 47th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. LPI, The Woodlands, Texas, p. 1088 Öpik, E.J.,

    2014

  46. [47]

    CO chondrites

    Testing models for the compositions of chondrites and their components: I. CO chondrites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 304, 119- 140,10.1016/j.gca.2021.04.004. Peale, S.J.,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.gca.2021.04.004 2021

  47. [48]

    Icarus 82, 36-49,10.1016/0019-1035(89)90021-3

    On the density of Halley's comet. Icarus 82, 36-49,10.1016/0019-1035(89)90021-3. Peña-Asensio, E., Trigo-Rodríguez, J.M., Rimola, A.,

    work page doi:10.1016/0019-1035(89)90021-3

  48. [49]

    The Astronomical Journal 164, 76,10.3847/1538-3881/ac75d2

    Orbital Characterization of Superbolides Observed from Space: Dynamical Association with Near-Earth Objects, Meteoroid Streams, and Identification of Hyperbolic Meteoroids. The Astronomical Journal 164, 76,10.3847/1538-3881/ac75d2. Pilger, C., Ceranna, L., Ross, J.O., Le Pichon, A., Mialle, P ., Garcés, M.A.,

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac75d2

  49. [50]

    Geophysical Research Letters 42, 2523- 2531,10.1002/2015GL063482

    CTBT infrasound network performance to detect the 2013 Russian fireball event. Geophysical Research Letters 42, 2523- 2531,10.1002/2015GL063482. Pilger, C., Gaebler, P ., Hupe, P ., Ott, T., Drolshagen, E.,

    work page doi:10.1002/2015gl063482 2013

  50. [51]

    Atmosphere 11, 83,10.3390/atmos11010083

    Global Monitoring and Characterization of Infrasound Signatures by Large Fireballs. Atmosphere 11, 83,10.3390/atmos11010083. Popova, O.,

    work page doi:10.3390/atmos11010083

  51. [52]

    Earth, Moon, and Planets 95, 303-319,10.1007/S11038-005- 9026-X

    Meteoroid ablation models. Earth, Moon, and Planets 95, 303-319,10.1007/S11038-005- 9026-X. Popova, O., Sidneva, S., Strelkov, A., Shuvalov, V .,

    work page doi:10.1007/s11038-005-

  52. [53]

    237-245 Popova, O.P ., Sidneva, S.N., Shuvalov, V .V ., Strelkov, A.S.,

    Formation of disturbed area around fast meteor body, Meteoroids 2001 Conference, pp. 237-245 Popova, O.P ., Sidneva, S.N., Shuvalov, V .V ., Strelkov, A.S.,

    2001

  53. [54]

    Earth, Moon, and Planets 82-83, 109-128,10.1023/a:1017063007210

    Screening of Meteoroids by Ablation Vapor in High-Velocity Meteors. Earth, Moon, and Planets 82-83, 109-128,10.1023/a:1017063007210. Popova, O.P ., Sidneva, S.N., Shuvalov, V .V ., Strelkov, A.S.,

    work page doi:10.1023/a:1017063007210

  54. [55]

    Advances in Space Research 39, 567-573,10.1016/j.asr.2006.05.008

    Sputtering of fast meteoroids’ surface. Advances in Space Research 39, 567-573,10.1016/j.asr.2006.05.008. Probstein, R.F .,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.asr.2006.05.008 2006

  55. [56]

    A&A 537, A128,10.1051/0004-6361/201118085

    REBOUND: an open-source multi-purpose N-body code for collisional dynamics. A&A 537, A128,10.1051/0004-6361/201118085. ReVelle, D.O.,

    work page internal anchor Pith review doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118085

  56. [57]

    Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 822, 284-302,10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48347.x

    Historical Detection of Atmospheric Impacts by Large Bolides Using Acoustic-Gravity Wavesa. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 822, 284-302,10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48347.x. SAND2026-21651O 78 ReVelle, D.O.,

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48347.x 1997

  57. [58]

    (Eds.), Infrasound Monitoring for Atmospheric Studies

    Acoustic-Gravity Waves from Impulsive Sources in the Atmosphere, in: Le Pichon, A., Blanc, E., Hauchecorne, A. (Eds.), Infrasound Monitoring for Atmospheric Studies. Springer Netherlands, pp. 305-359,10.1007/978-1-4020-9508-5_11. ReVelle, D.O., Edwards, W.N.,

    work page doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9508-5_11

  58. [59]

    Robert, F ., Epstein, S.,

    Meteoritics & Planetary Science 42, 271-299,10.1111/j.1945-5100.2007.tb00232.x. Robert, F ., Epstein, S.,

    work page doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2007.tb00232.x 1945

  59. [60]

    Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 46, 81-95,10.1016/0016-7037(82)90293-9

    The concentration and isotopic composition of hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen in carbonaceous meteorites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 46, 81-95,10.1016/0016-7037(82)90293-9. Rogers, L.A., Hill, K.A., Hawkes, R.L.,

    work page doi:10.1016/0016-7037(82)90293-9

  60. [61]

    Planetary and Space Science 53, 1341-1354,10.1016/j.pss.2005.07.002

    Mass loss due to sputtering and thermal processes in meteoroid ablation. Planetary and Space Science 53, 1341-1354,10.1016/j.pss.2005.07.002. Romig, M.F .,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.pss.2005.07.002 2005

  61. [62]

    AIAA Journal 3, 385-394,10.2514/3.2877

    Physics of meteor entry. AIAA Journal 3, 385-394,10.2514/3.2877. Ronac Giannone, M., Arrowsmith, S., Silber, E.A.,

    work page doi:10.2514/3.2877

  62. [63]

    Seismological Research Letters,10.1785/0220240434

    Cardinal: Seismic and Geoacoustic Array Processing. Seismological Research Letters,10.1785/0220240434. Rubin, A.E., Trigo-Rodríguez, J.M., Huber, H., Wasson, J.T.,

    work page doi:10.1785/0220240434

  63. [64]

    Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 71, 2361-2382,10.1016/j.gca.2007.02.008

    Progressive aqueous alteration of CM carbonaceous chondrites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 71, 2361-2382,10.1016/j.gca.2007.02.008. Sanchez, J.A., Reddy, V ., Thirouin, A., Bottke, W.F ., Kareta, T., De Florio, M., Sharkey, B.N.L., Battle, A., Cantillo, D.C., Pearson, N.,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.gca.2007.02.008 2007

  64. [65]

    The Planetary Science Journal 5, 131,10.3847/PSJ/ad445f

    The Population of Small Near-Earth Objects: Composition, Source Regions, and Rotational Properties. The Planetary Science Journal 5, 131,10.3847/PSJ/ad445f. Scamfer, L.T., Silber, E.A., Fries, M.D., Vida, D., Šegon, D., Jenniskens, P ., Nishikawa, Y ., Sawal, V ., Rector, T.,

    work page doi:10.3847/psj/ad445f

  65. [66]

    JGR Planets,10.1029/2025JE009440

    Multi-Sensor Trajectory Reconstruction of the 24 April 2025 Alaska Fireball and Implications for Planetary Defense. JGR Planets,10.1029/2025JE009440. Sears, D.W.,

    work page doi:10.1029/2025je009440 2025

  66. [67]

    The Astrophysical Journal 757, 127,10.1088/0004-637X/757/2/127

    Comet C/2011 W3 (Lovejoy): Orbit determination, outbursts, disintegration of nucleus, dust-tail morphology, and relationship to new cluster of bright sungrazers. The Astrophysical Journal 757, 127,10.1088/0004-637X/757/2/127. Shen, C.,

    work page doi:10.1088/0004-637x/757/2/127 2011

  67. [68]

    The Astronomical Journal 159, 191,10.3847/1538-3881/ab8002

    Where did they come from, where did they go: Grazing fireballs. The Astronomical Journal 159, 191,10.3847/1538-3881/ab8002. Sigmund, P .,

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab8002

  68. [69]

    Theory of Sputtering. I. Sputtering Yield of Amorphous and Polycrystalline Targets. Physical Review 184, 383-416,10.1103/PhysRev.184.383. Silber, E., Bowman, D.C.,

    work page doi:10.1103/physrev.184.383

  69. [70]

    Seismological Research Letters,10.1785/0220250014

    Along-trajectory acoustic signal variations observed during the hypersonic reentry of the OSIRIS-REx Sample Return Capsule. Seismological Research Letters,10.1785/0220250014. Silber, E., Chunchuzov, I., Popov, O., Kulichkov, S.,

    work page doi:10.1785/0220250014

  70. [71]

    The Astronomical Journal 168,10.3847/1538-3881/ad47c3

    The utility of infrasound in global monitoring of extraterrestrial impacts: A case study of the 23 July 2008 Tajikistan bolide. The Astronomical Journal 168,10.3847/1538-3881/ad47c3. Silber, E.A.,

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad47c3 2008

  71. [72]

    Advances in Space Research 62, 489- 532,10.1016/j.asr.2018.05.010

    Physics of meteor generated shock waves in the Earth’s atmosphere – A review. Advances in Space Research 62, 489- 532,10.1016/j.asr.2018.05.010. Silber, E.A., Bowman, D.C., Carr, C.G., Eisenberg, D.P ., Elbing, B.R., Fernando, B., Garces, M.A., Haaser, R., Krishnamoorthy, S., Langston, C.A., Nishikawa, Y ., Webster, J., Anderson, J.F ., Arrowsmith, S., Ba...

    work page doi:10.1016/j.asr.2018.05.010 2018

  72. [73]

    The Planetary Science Journal 5,10.3847/PSJ/ad5b5e

    Geophysical Observations of the 24 September 2023 OSIRIS-REx Sample Return Capsule Re-Entry. The Planetary Science Journal 5,10.3847/PSJ/ad5b5e. Silber, E.A., Brown, P .G.,

    work page doi:10.3847/psj/ad5b5e 2023

  73. [74]

    Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 119, 116- 128,10.1016/j.jastp.2014.07.005

    Optical observations of meteors generating infrasound—I: Acoustic signal identification and phenomenology. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 119, 116- 128,10.1016/j.jastp.2014.07.005. Silber, E.A., Brown, P .G., Krzeminski, Z.,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2014.07.005 2014

  74. [75]

    Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 120, 413-428,10.1002/2014JE004680

    Optical observations of meteors generating infrasound: Weak shock theory and validation. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 120, 413-428,10.1002/2014JE004680. Silber, E.A., Hocking, W.K., Niculescu, M.L., Gritsevich, M., Silber, R.E.,

    work page doi:10.1002/2014je004680

  75. [76]

    Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 469, 1869-1882,10.1093/mnras/stx923

    On shock waves and the role of hyperthermal chemistry in the early diffusion of overdense meteor trains. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 469, 1869-1882,10.1093/mnras/stx923. Silber, E.A., Le Pichon, A., Brown, P .G.,

    work page doi:10.1093/mnras/stx923

  76. [77]

    Characterization of Infrasonic Signatures of Earth-grazing Fireballs as Analogues to Hypersonic Vehicles

    Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L12201,10.1029/2011gl047633. Silber, E.A., Ronac Giannone, M., Albert, S., Sawal, V ., 2025a. Final Report for "Characterization of Infrasonic Signatures of Earth-grazing Fireballs as Analogues to Hypersonic Vehicles" . Sandia National Laboratories (SNL-NM), Albuquerque, NM (United States), Albuquerque, NM, USA, p. 43 Silber, E.A.,...

    work page doi:10.1029/2011gl047633

  77. [78]

    Nucleosynthetic Analysis of Three-dimensional Core- collapse Supernova Simulations

    BLADE: An Automated Framework for Classifying Light Curves from the Center for Near-Earth Object Studies (CNEOS) Fireball Database. The Astronomical Journal,10.3847/1538- 3881/adeb55. Silber, E.A., Trigo-Rodriguez, J., Oseghae, I., Peña Asensio, E., Boslough, M.B., Whitaker, R., Pilger, C., Lubin, P ., Sawal, V ., Hetzer, C., Longenbaugh, R., Jenniskens, ...

    work page doi:10.3847/1538-

  78. [79]

    Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 124, 9299-9313,10.1029/2019JD030386

    A Three-Dimensional Array for the Study of Infrasound Propagation Through the Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 124, 9299-9313,10.1029/2019JD030386. Stewart, W., Pratt, A.R., Entwisle, L.,

    work page doi:10.1029/2019jd030386

  79. [80]

    Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 299, 219-256,10.1016/j.gca.2021.01.014

    The aqueous alteration of CM chondrites, a review. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 299, 219-256,10.1016/j.gca.2021.01.014. Tielens, A.G., McKee, C.F ., Seab, C.G., Hollenbach, D.J.,

    work page doi:10.1016/j.gca.2021.01.014 2021

  80. [81]

    1-12,10.1109/AERO.2018.8396769

    The Orion spacecraft as a key element in a deep space gateway, 2018 IEEE Aerospace Conference, pp. 1-12,10.1109/AERO.2018.8396769. Tolmachev, A.I.,

    work page doi:10.1109/aero.2018.8396769 2018

Showing first 80 references.