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arxiv: 2606.20980 · v1 · pith:3337B4HRnew · submitted 2026-06-18 · 💻 cs.CV · cs.AI· cs.RO

Robusto-2: Benchmarking Humans & VLMs for Autonomous Driving in Lima & New York City

Adrian Cespedes , Marcelo Chincha , Dunant Cusipuma , Victor Flores-Benites , David Ortega , Arturo Deza This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-26 17:28 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification 💻 cs.CV cs.AIcs.RO
keywords autonomous drivingvisual question answeringvision-language modelsbenchmark datasetout-of-distributiondashcam footagehuman-model comparison
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The pith

Humans from Lima and New York City give similar answers to dashcam driving questions while VLMs diverge depending on question type.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper sets up a visual question answering benchmark that shows humans from two distant cities respond similarly when shown the same dashcam footage from Lima and New York City. VLMs produce different answers from humans, and the size of that difference changes with whether the question is factual, a rating, counterfactual, or reasoning. No strong effect of geography appears in either human or VLM responses, which the authors link to the highly out-of-distribution character of the scenes. This comparison matters because self-driving systems increasingly rely on VLMs as a reasoning layer and must handle new cities without prior operation data.

Core claim

When humans from Lima, humans from New York City, and VLMs are shown identical dashcam clips from both cities and asked questions in four categories, human responses align closely regardless of the viewer's home city while VLM responses separate from the human pattern in a manner that depends on question category; geography itself produces no large shift in answers for any group.

What carries the argument

A full-factorial VQA setup that crosses participant type (Lima humans, NYC humans, VLMs), footage origin (Lima, NYC), and four question categories (Factual, Ratings, Counterfactual, Reasoning).

If this is right

  • VLM-based driving systems may require less city-specific retraining than expected but more adjustment for different question styles.
  • Human drivers appear to share a common perceptual response to novel driving scenes even when their home cities differ.
  • Benchmark results can flag which question types expose the largest gaps between current VLMs and human drivers.
  • The absence of geography effects suggests that high-OOD test sets may be more diagnostic than city-matched ones for generalization checks.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • The same VQA format could be extended to other high-challenge cities to test whether the human-consistency pattern holds more broadly.
  • If VLMs are to serve as action planners, the question-type modulation implies targeted fine-tuning on counterfactual and reasoning items rather than uniform scaling.
  • The dataset release allows direct comparison of future models against this human baseline without needing new human data collection.

Load-bearing premise

The chosen dashcam clips and four question categories are enough to reveal the main differences in how humans and VLMs handle driving decisions in these cities.

What would settle it

A replication that finds large differences between Lima and New York City human answers on the same footage would undermine the claim that geography does not modulate responses.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2606.20980 by Adrian Cespedes, Arturo Deza, David Ortega, Dunant Cusipuma, Marcelo Chincha, Victor Flores-Benites.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: How well do Humans from Lima, Humans from NYC and VLMs compare to each other cognitively when being shown Out-of-Distribution video clips (A.)? In this paper we study the cross-cultural (Lima vs NYC) and cross-system (Human vs VLM) generalization gap when prompted with data from both geographies. Studying this gap under a VQA framework (B.) is important for explainability purposes and as self-driving cars … view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: A diagram explaining the OOD selection pipeline: 200 video clips from Lima and NYC are fed to multiple VLMs by asking them the same 20 questions via VQA. We then select the 10 clips of Lima and 10 clips of NYC that have the highest variance in answers across models, interpreting this disagreement as OOD scenes. These clips are then shown to Humans in our survey. Specific logistical challenges, variable rec… view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: An assessment of how Humans and VLMs converge/diverge depending on the questions asked and the geography of both the data and the participant for Lima and NYC locations. In (A.) we see the raw answers projected in 2D via PCA in a block-wise fashion to directly compare Lima vs NYC per block, in (B.) we see the Representational Similarity Matrix (RSA) across all systems – Humans & VLMs are shown in (C.). 3 G… view at source ↗
Figure 4
Figure 4. Figure 4: An averaged per Geography (Lima vs NYC) Multi-Dimensional Scaling plot computed via the L1 distances of ratings across all questions of Block 2 (Q6 - Q10) showing all Humans and VLMs. Notice that the geometry of ratings is very similar across Geographies, and that Humans are very similar to each other, but not so much to VLMs – however, this Human vs VLM difference is accentuated in Lima. to inspect the lo… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Analysis of Systematic bias covered through distributions (A.) and inter-system differences per video (B). In (A.) we compute the average ratings of each system via 1 repetition, and compare these to violin plots computer for each VLM per 30-fold repetitions per video. In (B.) we compute the L1 distance between all pairs of each system’s ratings, and compute an average across all videos per question. In bo… view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Semantic Similarity via LLM-as-a-Judge. Here we observe how different the answers were per systems across the 3 blocks: Factual, Counterfactual and Reasoning. Given that LLM-as-a-Judge has a better semantic understanding than embeddings that are driven by syntaxis, differences per block begin to emerge. Notice however that the pattern of answers for Humans and VLMs is very similar for videos from both Lima… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Representational Similarity Analysis (RSA) for both allmpnet (embedding used in the Paper) and Qwen3. In both cases the pattern of results does not change [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p025_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Average Cosine Similarity for both allmpnet (embedding used in the Paper) and Qwen3. In both cases the pattern of results does not change [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p026_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: A comparison of the block-wise Principal Component Analysis (PCA) per￾formed across systems for the allmpnet vs Qwen3 embeddings. The pattern of results does not change [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p029_9.png] view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: A comparison of the Global Principal Component Analysis (PCA) performed across systems for the allmpnet vs Qwen3 embeddings. The pattern of results does not change [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p030_10.png] view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: A grid of Multi-Dimensional Scaling plots for Block 2 questions: Q6 to Q10 for both Lima and NYC. Different quality of fits visualized through stress vary per each plot as this is dependent on the dissimilarity score received as input in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p037_11.png] view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Collage of Stimuli used in the paper (10 scenes are from Lima, and 10 are from NYC). Only 1 frame is shown per video. All videos shown to Humans and VLMs lasted 5 seconds [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p038_12.png] view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Lima 01 sample video. Notice that Nvidia Cosmos mistakenly thinks that this scene is quite common (Block 2) since it confuses the street vendors for everyday pedestrians (thinking this is a common scene). Further follow-on questions and answers in the sample confirm that NVIDIA Cosmos can not cognitively understand what is really going on in the video [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p039_13.png] view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Lima 02 sample video. Here Qwen successfully manages some degree of align￾ment with the humans from Lima and NYC, although it does not fully seem to under￾stand the subtleness of a pedestrian who is jay walking under the influence [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p040_14.png] view at source ↗
Figure 15
Figure 15. Figure 15: New York 01 sample video. Here Google Gemini shows similar alignment in rating to Humans from Both Lima (red) and New York City (blue). Surprisingly, some of the reasoning answers show levels of confusion as Google Gemini hallucinates a traffic light [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p041_15.png] view at source ↗
Figure 16
Figure 16. Figure 16: New York 02 sample video. The Factual and Reasoning answers allow us to cognitively probe the Meta Perception-LM model. It disagrees with humans on the color of the traffic light and the probabilistic assignment of a crash to occur [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p042_16.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

As Self-Driving Cars continue to expand internationally and use multi-modal systems such as VLMs as a cognitive backbone for their Action models; how well will these systems generalize in new settings, in particular out-of-distribution (OOD) edge-case scenarios in new geographies? In this paper, we study this open question by providing a full factorial analysis with human drivers of Lima, human drivers from New York City, and VLMs and showing them dashcam footage collected from Lima and New York City -- prompting them with a variety of questions under a Visual Question Answering (VQA) paradigm. In particular, we pick these two cities as they are highly challenging driving locations where no Self-Driving Car company currently operates in, and ask questions that span 4 categories: Factual, Ratings, Counterfactual and Reasoning. We find that Humans and VLMs diverge in their responses -- though this is modulated by the type of questions asked, and that Humans answer similarly independent of where they are from (Lima/NYC). To our surprise, we did not find a strong difference in terms of answers (Humans or VLMs) that was modulated by geography, likely due to their high out-of-distribution nature. Our dataset is available at: https://huggingface.co/datasets/Artificio/robusto-2

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 2 minor

Summary. The paper presents an empirical benchmark comparing responses of human drivers from Lima and New York City with those of VLMs on dashcam footage from both cities under a VQA paradigm. Questions are grouped into four categories (Factual, Ratings, Counterfactual, Reasoning). The central claims are that humans and VLMs diverge in a question-type-dependent manner, that human responses are similar independent of geographic origin, and that geography does not strongly modulate answers for either group, attributed to the high OOD nature of the scenes.

Significance. If the quantitative results and statistical tests hold, the work would provide a useful public dataset and initial evidence on VLM generalization limits for autonomous-driving perception in challenging, non-operational cities; the release of the dataset at the cited Hugging Face link is a clear strength for reproducibility.

major comments (1)
  1. [Abstract] Abstract: the key findings on divergence, lack of geography modulation, and question-type dependence are stated without any sample sizes, statistical tests, effect sizes, inter-rater reliability, or error analysis, so the central empirical claims cannot be evaluated from the provided text.
minor comments (2)
  1. The four question categories are named but their exact wording, coding scheme, and how responses were aggregated or compared are not described in the visible text.
  2. No mention of how VLMs were prompted, which models were tested, or any controls for prompt sensitivity.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their review. We address the single major comment below regarding the abstract.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract] Abstract: the key findings on divergence, lack of geography modulation, and question-type dependence are stated without any sample sizes, statistical tests, effect sizes, inter-rater reliability, or error analysis, so the central empirical claims cannot be evaluated from the provided text.

    Authors: We agree that the abstract, in its current form, omits these quantitative details and therefore does not allow direct evaluation of the central claims. The full manuscript reports participant sample sizes (human drivers from each city), the number of VLM queries per condition, statistical tests for group differences by question category, and response-pattern analyses. Inter-rater reliability for the human annotations and error analysis appear in the methods and results sections. We will revise the abstract to incorporate sample sizes, mention of the statistical tests and their outcomes, and effect-size indicators so that the key findings can be assessed from the abstract alone. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

Purely empirical benchmark study with no derivations or self-referential structure

full rationale

The paper conducts a direct empirical comparison by collecting human responses from Lima and NYC participants to VQA prompts on dashcam footage from both cities, then contrasts those against VLM outputs across four question categories. No equations, fitted parameters, derivations, or load-bearing self-citations appear in the provided text. The central claims rest on observed response patterns and geography modulation (or lack thereof), which are measured against external data collection rather than reduced to prior author results or internal definitions. This is a standard benchmark study whose validity can be assessed by replication on the released dataset.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

0 free parameters · 0 axioms · 0 invented entities

Empirical benchmark study; no mathematical derivations, free parameters, axioms, or invented entities are present in the central claims.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5790 in / 1129 out tokens · 47500 ms · 2026-06-26T17:28:21.533042+00:00 · methodology

discussion (0)

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    Answer Format: Provide concise answers in natural language. Limit your response to a single sentence

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    **Conclusion Priority:** If both responses reach the same core conclusion (e.g., both say "Yes," both say "Safe," or both identify the same action like "Braking"), you MUST score +2

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