pith. sign in

arxiv: 2605.26204 · v2 · pith:5SUC4QEEnew · submitted 2026-05-25 · ✦ hep-ph · astro-ph.CO· astro-ph.HE

Electromagnetic Signatures From Primordial Black Holes in the Solar System

Alexandra P. Klipfel , David I. Kaiser This is my paper

Pith reviewed 2026-06-30 11:38 UTC · model grok-4.3

classification ✦ hep-ph astro-ph.COastro-ph.HE
keywords primordial black holesHawking radiationdark matterSolar System transitsgamma-ray detectionPBH explosionselectromagnetic signatures
0
0 comments X

The pith

Asteroid-mass primordial black holes could produce detectable Hawking-radiated photons for instruments like AMEGO-X during close transits.

A machine-rendered reading of the paper's core claim, the machinery that carries it, and where it could break.

The paper calculates expected local transit rates for extended PBH mass distributions that could comprise all the dark matter in the asteroid-mass range. It then evaluates detection prospects for Hawking-radiated photons from transits through the inner Solar System and explosions in the outer Solar System using instruments across radio to ultrahigh-energy gamma rays. A sympathetic reader would care because this turns a theoretical dark matter candidate into something that could be tested with electromagnetic observations at accessible distances. The analysis includes specific sensitivity claims for both existing and proposed detectors.

Core claim

We calculate expected local transit rates for extended PBH mass distributions which could comprise all the dark matter. We find that proposed instruments such as the AMEGO-X satellite could reliably detect PBH transits within O(0.1 AU) of the Earth, while the HAWC and LHAASO observatories are both sensitive to PBH explosions out to O(0.1 pc) and O(0.5 pc) respectively. We also show that a PBH explosion at about 10^3 AU could yield measurable electromagnetic signals depending on alignment with detector fields of view.

What carries the argument

Hawking radiation spectra from asteroid-mass PBHs (10^17 g to 10^23 g) under extended mass distributions, used to predict photon fluxes from transits and explosions.

If this is right

  • AMEGO-X could reliably detect PBH transits within O(0.1 AU) of Earth.
  • HAWC is sensitive to PBH explosions out to O(0.1 pc).
  • LHAASO is sensitive to PBH explosions out to O(0.5 pc).
  • Future PBH explosions at distances around 1000 AU could produce measurable electromagnetic signals if aligned with detector fields of view.
  • The 2023 KM3NeT neutrino event at suggested distance would not have produced detectable electromagnetic signals due to sky location and HAWC status.

Where Pith is reading between the lines

These are editorial extensions of the paper, not claims the author makes directly.

  • Multi-messenger follow-up of high-energy neutrino events could incorporate electromagnetic searches for PBH explosions as a standard protocol.
  • Non-detections over time with these instruments would tighten bounds on the dark matter fraction in this mass range beyond current gravitational constraints.
  • The distance-dependent sensitivity windows could be combined with other PBH search methods to map allowed regions of parameter space more precisely.

Load-bearing premise

The PBHs follow the specific extended mass distributions that make up all dark matter and emit standard Hawking radiation without additional suppression or environmental effects.

What would settle it

A null result from long-term monitoring by AMEGO-X showing no transits at the calculated rate, or a non-detection of an explosion signal by HAWC at the expected distance and energy for a candidate event.

Figures

Figures reproduced from arXiv: 2605.26204 by Alexandra P. Klipfel, David I. Kaiser.

Figure 1
Figure 1. Figure 1: (Left) Primary photon Hawking emission spectra for Schwarzschild black holes with masses ranging from 1017 g (yellow) to 1024 g (black). (Right) Secondary Hawking emission spectra for PBHs with masses ranging from 1013 g (yellow) to 1020 g (black). Plots prepared with BlackHawk v2.2 [38, 39]. which are space-based detectors sensitive to UV and X-ray bands, respectively. Finally, in Section III D we briefly… view at source ↗
Figure 2
Figure 2. Figure 2: Constraints on PBH dark matter fraction [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p005_2.png] view at source ↗
Figure 3
Figure 3. Figure 3: (Left) Cumulative inner Solar System transit rates for PBHs with mass m ≤ M expected to pass within 5 AU of the Earth per year, according to Eq. (18). The peak of the number distribution is fixed at M¯ = 5 × 1017 g. (Right) Total PBH transit rates for impact parameters b ≤ 5 AU as a function of population peak mass M¯ and model parameters α and β, computed with Eq. (19). We consider transit rates for the s… view at source ↗
Figure 5
Figure 5. Figure 5: Measured photon count rate given by Eq. ( [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p007_5.png] view at source ↗
Figure 6
Figure 6. Figure 6: Maximum detectable impact parameter bmax as a function of PBH mass for a PBH stationary relative to the GALEX detector. The PBH masses that maximize the curves are MNUV max = 1.01 × 1022 g (b NUV max = 2.5 × 106 m) and MFUV max = 7.34 × 1021 g (b FUV max = 1.1 × 107 m). where ψ ∈ [0, 2π)is a randomly sampled phase. We are work￾ing in Cartesian coordinates centered on the Earth with the equator lying in the… view at source ↗
Figure 7
Figure 7. Figure 7: Emission rate of detectable photons in the four en￾ergy bins ∆Ek expected for the proposed AMEGO-X experi￾ment computed by integrating the secondary spectra shown in [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p009_7.png] view at source ↗
Figure 8
Figure 8. Figure 8: Simulated transit signal with parameters [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p011_8.png] view at source ↗
Figure 9
Figure 9. Figure 9: Probability of PBH transit detection Pdet(b|M) for AMEGO-X as a function of impact parameter b and PBH mass M, from Eq. (42). We assume four values of the SNR threshold sensitivity Sthresh, assuming that detection of transit events with Sthresh < 1 will be possible with matched filtering, as demonstrated in our previous work [19]. Each point is computed with n = 103 simulations. The maximum impact paramete… view at source ↗
Figure 10
Figure 10. Figure 10: Emitted power by a PBH of mass M in the ra￾dio band 10 MHz ≤ f ≤ 1 THz described in Table VI. The vertical black line corresponds to the critical mass Mc = 1.26 × 1027, such that all PBHs with mass M ≤ Mc are net emitters. Note that the upper edge of the asteroid mass win￾dow is M ∼ 1023 g. These signals are exponentially too weak to detect. For example, assuming a 70 m diameter dish with a sensitivity of… view at source ↗
Figure 11
Figure 11. Figure 11: Secondary photon emission spectra for PBHs with [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p014_11.png] view at source ↗
Figure 12
Figure 12. Figure 12: Detectable photon emission rate as a function [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p015_12.png] view at source ↗
Figure 13
Figure 13. Figure 13: Measured signal photon counts Nsig(b, θ) for a PBH explosion a distance b from Earth with duration τburst = 10 s and zenith angle θ, for the LHAASO-WCDA detector (left) and for HAWC (right). Both instruments are less sensitive to bursts farther from the zenith θ = 0. The vertical black line indicates b = 1890 AU, the estimated distance for an explosion which could theoretically have sourced the KM3NeT eve… view at source ↗
Figure 14
Figure 14. Figure 14: Expected photon signal counts (dark blue line) and [PITH_FULL_IMAGE:figures/full_fig_p018_14.png] view at source ↗
read the original abstract

Primordial black holes (PBHs) in the asteroid-mass range, with typical masses $10^{17}\,{\rm g}\lesssim M \lesssim 10^{23}\,{\rm g}$, have drawn significant recent attention as a viable dark matter candidate. The peak frequencies of photons emitted via Hawking radiation from asteroid-mass PBHs range from infrared to $\gamma$-ray bands. We calculate expected local transit rates for extended PBH mass distributions which could comprise all the dark matter. We evaluate prospects for detecting Hawking-radiated photons from local PBH transits through the inner Solar System and from PBH explosions in the far outer edges of the Solar System. We consider several existing and proposed ground-based and space-based instruments sensitive to photons from the radio band to ultrahigh energy $\gamma$-rays. We find that proposed instruments, such as the AMEGO-X satellite, could reliably detect PBH transits within ${\cal O} (0.1 \, {\rm AU})$ of the Earth, while the HAWC and LHAASO observatories are both sensitive to PBH explosions out to ${\cal O}(0.1 \, {\rm pc})$ and ${\cal O}(0.5 \, {\rm pc})$ respectively. We conclude by specifically considering potential companion electromagnetic signatures in the case of a PBH explosion about $10^3\,{\rm AU}$ from Earth, which has been suggested as a potential source for the $\sim 220 \, {\rm PeV}$ ultrahigh-energy KM3-230213A neutrino event observed by the KM3NeT collaboration in 2023. Whereas we find that the recent KM3NeT event would not have yielded detectable electromagnetic signals -- due to its location on the sky, proposed distance from Earth, and the offline status of the HAWC observatory at that time -- we demonstrate that future PBH explosions at comparable distances could yield measurable electromagnetic signals at Earth, depending on alignment of the PBH burst with detector fields of view.

Editorial analysis

A structured set of objections, weighed in public.

Desk editor's note, referee report, simulated authors' rebuttal, and a circularity audit. Tearing a paper down is the easy half of reading it; the pith above is the substance, this is the friction.

Referee Report

1 major / 1 minor

Summary. The paper calculates expected local transit rates for asteroid-mass PBHs (10^17 g ≲ M ≲ 10^23 g) under extended mass distributions that could comprise all dark matter. It evaluates detection prospects for Hawking-radiated photons from PBH transits in the inner Solar System and explosions at the outer edges, considering instruments from radio to UHE gamma rays. Key claims are that AMEGO-X could detect transits within O(0.1 AU) of Earth, while HAWC and LHAASO are sensitive to explosions out to O(0.1 pc) and O(0.5 pc); it also assesses electromagnetic counterparts to a possible PBH explosion at ~10^3 AU linked to the KM3-230213A neutrino event.

Significance. If the central results hold, the work supplies concrete, instrument-specific forecasts for electromagnetic detection of PBH dark matter candidates, including multi-messenger implications for events like the recent KM3NeT neutrino. This could enable direct tests of PBH abundance and mass functions via existing and proposed observatories.

major comments (1)
  1. [Abstract and §3] Abstract and §3: the quoted detection distances (AMEGO-X to O(0.1 AU); HAWC/LHAASO to O(0.1–0.5 pc) for explosions) are derived from transit rates and photon fluxes that assume particular extended PBH mass distributions normalized to all DM together with unmodified Hawking spectra. No robustness scan is shown against variations in mass-function width, cutoffs, or modest efficiency reductions, so the numerical reaches are conditional on these inputs.
minor comments (1)
  1. [final section] The discussion of the specific KM3NeT event (offline status of HAWC, sky location, distance) is useful but would benefit from a brief quantitative estimate of the expected photon fluence at Earth for the assumed 10^3 AU distance.

Simulated Author's Rebuttal

1 responses · 0 unresolved

We thank the referee for their detailed and constructive report. We address the single major comment below, agreeing where appropriate and outlining planned revisions.

read point-by-point responses

  1. Referee: [Abstract and §3] Abstract and §3: the quoted detection distances (AMEGO-X to O(0.1 AU); HAWC/LHAASO to O(0.1–0.5 pc) for explosions) are derived from transit rates and photon fluxes that assume particular extended PBH mass distributions normalized to all DM together with unmodified Hawking spectra. No robustness scan is shown against variations in mass-function width, cutoffs, or modest efficiency reductions, so the numerical reaches are conditional on these inputs.

    Authors: We agree that the quoted O(0.1 AU) and O(0.1–0.5 pc) reaches are derived for the specific extended mass distributions (normalized to all DM) and standard Hawking spectra adopted in the paper. These distributions were selected as representative cases capable of comprising the full dark-matter density, consistent with the recent literature on asteroid-mass PBHs. The order-of-magnitude notation is intended to convey indicative scales rather than precise limits. No explicit robustness scan over mass-function width, cutoffs, or efficiency reductions was performed, as the focus was on benchmark scenarios. We will revise the abstract and §3 to state explicitly that the quoted distances are conditional on these assumptions and add a short paragraph discussing the qualitative impact of modest variations in the mass-function parameters. revision: yes

Circularity Check

0 steps flagged

No significant circularity; results derived from external standard inputs

full rationale

The paper computes transit rates and detection distances using standard Hawking radiation spectra and assumed extended PBH mass distributions normalized to all dark matter as external inputs. No equations reduce the output quantities (e.g., O(0.1 AU) or O(0.1-0.5 pc) reaches) to quantities defined by the paper's own fits or self-citations. The central claims follow directly from these inputs without self-definitional loops, fitted-input predictions, or load-bearing self-citations that would force the result by construction. This is the expected non-circular outcome for a calculation paper.

Axiom & Free-Parameter Ledger

1 free parameters · 2 axioms · 0 invented entities

The central claim rests on the standard semiclassical Hawking radiation spectrum, an assumed extended PBH mass function normalized to the full dark-matter density, and standard Solar-System geometry; no new entities are introduced.

free parameters (1)
  • parameters of the extended PBH mass distribution
    The paper adopts extended mass distributions that comprise all dark matter; the functional form and normalization parameters are external inputs chosen to match the observed dark-matter density.
axioms (2)
  • standard math Hawking radiation spectrum for Schwarzschild black holes in flat spacetime
    Used to compute photon emission rates and peak frequencies across infrared to gamma-ray bands.
  • domain assumption PBHs can comprise all dark matter with asteroid-mass distributions
    The transit-rate and detection calculations are performed under this hypothesis.

pith-pipeline@v0.9.1-grok · 5908 in / 1445 out tokens · 40792 ms · 2026-06-30T11:38:03.809651+00:00 · methodology

Review history (2 revisions) →

discussion (0)

Sign in with ORCID, Apple, or X to comment. Anyone can read and Pith papers without signing in.

Reference graph

Works this paper leans on

115 extracted references · 89 canonical work pages · 27 internal anchors

  1. [1]

    The FUV detector malfunctioned in 2009 and the mission continued observing in the NUV until

    GALEX TheGalaxy Evolution Explorer(GALEX) satellite mis- sion was launched in April 2003, with instruments to observe in the near-UV (NUV ,1771−2831 ˚A ) and far-UV (FUV , 1344−1786 ˚A ) [83]. The FUV detector malfunctioned in 2009 and the mission continued observing in the NUV until

    2003

  2. [2]

    [83] for a summary of All-sky and Medium- depth Imaging Surveys, Ref

    See Ref. [83] for a summary of All-sky and Medium- depth Imaging Surveys, Ref. [84] for a detailed discussion of the GALEX Time Domain Survey, and Ref. [85] for a discus- sion of GALEX calibration and detector parameters. Table III includes GALEX parameters referenced in this section for the NUV and FUV instruments. A first estimate of the prospects for d...

  3. [3]

    According to Ref

    AMEGO-X An instrument of interest to detect higher-energy pho- tons from PBH transits is the proposedAll-sky Medium En- ergy Gamma-ray Observatory eXplorer(AMEGO-X) satel- lite. According to Ref. [86], the satellite’s instruments should be able to track photons from transient phenomena within the range10 keV≤E γ ≤1 GeVwith typical sensitivities of∼0.5−11 ...

  4. [5]

    Using the reported effective areaA eff(E)from Ref

    HAWC We repeat the above analysis for the High Altitude Water Cherenkov (HAWC) Observatory, with sensitivity to photons in the range300 GeV≲E γ ≲10 TeV. Using the reported effective areaA eff(E)from Ref. [104], we first compute the weighted emission rate of detectable photons(dN/dt) det via Eq. (49). See Fig. 12 for a plot of(dN/dt) det as a func- tion of...

  5. [6]

    However, as noted by Refs

    Fermi-LAT We have shown that LHAASO-WCDA and HAWC are vi- able candidate experiments to detect a rare PBH explosion within the Kuiper Belt or Oort Cloud, if such an explosion oc- curs within their respective fields of view. However, as noted by Refs. [24, 25], the HAWC and LHAASO fields of view do not overlap with each other. We briefly comment on the pos...

    work page arXiv 2000

  6. [7]

    Black hole explosions,

    S. W. Hawking, “Black hole explosions,” Nature248, 30–31 (1974)

    1974

  7. [8]

    Particle Creation by Black Holes,

    S. W. Hawking, “Particle Creation by Black Holes,” Com- mun. Math. Phys.43, 199–220 (1975), [Erratum: Com- mun.Math.Phys. 46, 206 (1976)]

    1975

  8. [9]

    Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole: Massless Particles from an Uncharged, Nonrotating Hole,

    Don N. Page, “Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole: Massless Particles from an Uncharged, Nonrotating Hole,” Phys. Rev. D13, 198–206 (1976)

    1976

  9. [10]

    Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole. 2. Massless Particles from a Rotating Hole,

    Don N. Page, “Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole. 2. Massless Particles from a Rotating Hole,” Phys. Rev. D14, 3260–3273 (1976)

    1976

  10. [11]

    Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole. 3. Charged Leptons from a Nonrotating Hole,

    Don N. Page, “Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole. 3. Charged Leptons from a Nonrotating Hole,” Phys. Rev. D16, 2402–2411 (1977)

    1977

  11. [12]

    Quark- and gluon- jet emission from primordial black holes: The instantaneous spectra,

    Jane H. MacGibbon and B. R. Webber, “Quark- and gluon- jet emission from primordial black holes: The instantaneous spectra,” Phys. Rev. D41, 3052–3079 (1990)

    1990

  12. [13]

    Quark- and gluon-jet emission from pri- mordial black holes. II. The emission over the black-hole life- time,

    Jane H. MacGibbon, “Quark- and gluon-jet emission from pri- mordial black holes. II. The emission over the black-hole life- time,” Phys. Rev. D44, 376–392 (1991)

    1991

  13. [14]

    Constraints on Primordial Black Holes

    Bernard Carr, Kazunori Kohri, Yuuiti Sendouda, and Jun’ichi Yokoyama, “Constraints on primordial black holes,” Rept. Prog. Phys.84, 116902 (2021), arXiv:2002.12778 [astro- ph.CO]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2021

  14. [15]

    Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter: Recent Developments

    Bernard Carr and Florian Kuhnel, “Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter: Recent Developments,” Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci.70, 355–394 (2020), arXiv:2006.02838 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2020

  15. [16]

    Primordial Black Holes as a dark matter candidate

    Anne M. Green and Bradley J. Kavanagh, “Primordial Black Holes as a dark matter candidate,” J. Phys. G48, 043001 (2021), arXiv:2007.10722 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2021

  16. [17]

    Primor- dial black holes,

    Albert Escriv `a, Florian K ¨uhnel, and Yuichiro Tada, “Primor- dial black holes,” inBlack Holes in the Era of Gravitational- Wave Astronomy, edited by Manuel Arca Sedda, Elisa Borto- las, and Mario Spera (2024) pp. 261–377, arXiv:2211.05767 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page arXiv 2024

  17. [19]

    Observational evidence for primordial black holes: A positivist perspective,

    Bernard Carr, Sebastien Clesse, Juan Garcia-Bellido, Michael Hawkins, and Florian Kuhnel, “Observational evidence for primordial black holes: A positivist perspective,” Phys. Rept. 1054, 1–68 (2024), arXiv:2306.03903 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page arXiv 2024

  18. [20]

    Close encounters of the primordial kind: A new observable for primordial black holes as dark matter,

    Tung X. Tran, Sarah R. Geller, Benjamin V . Lehmann, and David I. Kaiser, “Close encounters of the primordial kind: A new observable for primordial black holes as dark matter,” Phys. Rev. D110, 063533 (2024), arXiv:2312.17217 [astro- ph]

    work page arXiv 2024

  19. [21]

    Prob- ing primordial black holes and dark matter clumps in the Solar System with gravimeter and Global Navigation Satel- lite Systems networks,

    Michal Cuadrat-Grzybowski, S ´ebastien Clesse, Pascale De- fraigne, Michel Van Camp, and Bruno Bertrand, “Prob- ing primordial black holes and dark matter clumps in the Solar System with gravimeter and Global Navigation Satel- lite Systems networks,” Phys. Rev. D110, 063029 (2024), arXiv:2403.14397 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page arXiv 2024

  20. [22]

    Primordial Black Holes in the Solar System,

    Valentin Thoss and Andreas Burkert, “Primordial Black Holes in the Solar System,” Astrophys. J.980, 238 (2025), arXiv:2409.04518 [astro-ph.EP]

    work page arXiv 2025

  21. [23]

    Gravitational wave signals from primordial black holes orbiting solar-type stars,

    Vitorio A. De Lorenci, David I. Kaiser, Patrick Peter, Lucas S. Ruiz, and Noah E. Wolfe, “Gravitational wave signals from primordial black holes orbiting solar-type stars,” Phys. Rev. D 112, 063063 (2025), arXiv:2504.07517 [gr-qc]

    work page arXiv 2025

  22. [24]

    Detecting dark objects in the Solar System with gravitational wave observatories,

    Valentin Thoss and Abraham Loeb, “Detecting dark objects in the Solar System with gravitational wave observatories,” Phys. Rev. D112, 083050 (2025), arXiv:2507.19577 [gr-qc]

    work page arXiv 2025

  23. [25]

    Hawking radiation signatures from primordial black holes transiting the inner Solar System: Prospects for detection,

    Alexandra P. Klipfel, Peter Fisher, and David I. Kaiser, “Hawking radiation signatures from primordial black holes transiting the inner Solar System: Prospects for detection,” Phys. Rev. D112, 103007 (2025), arXiv:2506.14041 [astro- ph.CO]

    work page arXiv 2025

  24. [26]

    Ultrahigh-Energy Neutrinos from Primordial Black Holes,

    Alexandra P. Klipfel and David I. Kaiser, “Ultrahigh-Energy Neutrinos from Primordial Black Holes,” Phys. Rev. Lett.135, 121003 (2025), arXiv:2503.19227 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2025

  25. [27]

    Could We Observe an Exploding Black Hole in the Near Future?

    Michael J. Baker, Joaquim Iguaz Juan, Aidan Symons, and Andrea Thamm, “Could We Observe an Exploding Black Hole in the Near Future?” Phys. Rev. Lett.135, 111002 (2025), arXiv:2503.10755 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2025

  26. [28]

    Could the KM3–230213A event be caused by an evaporating primordial black hole?

    Andrea Boccia and Fabio Iocco, “Could the KM3–230213A event be caused by an evaporating primordial black hole?” Phys. Rev. D112, 063045 (2025), arXiv:2502.19245 [astro- ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2025

  27. [29]

    Explaining the PeV Neutrino Fluxes at KM3NeT and IceCube with Quasiextremal Primor- dial Black Holes,

    Michael J. Baker, Joaquim Iguaz Juan, Aidan Symons, and Andrea Thamm, “Explaining the PeV Neutrino Fluxes at KM3NeT and IceCube with Quasiextremal Primor- dial Black Holes,” Phys. Rev. Lett.136, 061002 (2026), arXiv:2505.22722 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2026

  28. [30]

    Could a Primordial Black Hole Explosion Explain the Ex- tremely High-Energy KM3NeT Neutrino Event?

    Lua F. T. Airoldi, Gustavo F. S. Alves, Yuber F. Perez- Gonzalez, Gabriel M. Salla, and Renata Zukanovich Funchal, “Could a Primordial Black Hole Explosion Explain the Ex- tremely High-Energy KM3NeT Neutrino Event?” Phys. Rev. Lett.136, 041002 (2026), arXiv:2505.24666 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2026

  29. [31]

    Tackling transient sources with neutrino telescopes,

    Lua F. T. Airoldi, Gustavo F. S. Alves, Yuber F. Perez- Gonzalez, Gabriel M. Salla, and Renata Zukanovich Funchal, “Tackling transient sources with neutrino telescopes,” Phys. Rev. D113, 023052 (2026), arXiv:2505.24652 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2026

  30. [32]

    Exploring memory-burdened primordial black holes with ultra-high-energy cosmic-rays,

    Antonio Ambrosone, Marco Chianese, and Carmelo Evoli, “Exploring memory-burdened primordial black holes with ultra-high-energy cosmic-rays,” (2026), arXiv:2603.15827 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2026

  31. [33]

    High-energy neutrino constraints on primordial black holes as dark matter

    Mainak Mukhopadhyay and Joaquim Iguaz Juan, “High- energy neutrino constraints on primordial black holes as dark matter,” (2026), arXiv:2604.09762 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2026

  32. [34]

    Probing the parti- cle spectrum of nature with evaporating black holes,

    Michael J. Baker and Andrea Thamm, “Probing the parti- cle spectrum of nature with evaporating black holes,” SciPost Phys.12, 150 (2022), arXiv:2105.10506 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2022

  33. [35]

    Black hole evapora- tion beyond the Standard Model of particle physics,

    Michael J. Baker and Andrea Thamm, “Black hole evapora- tion beyond the Standard Model of particle physics,” JHEP 01, 063 (2023), arXiv:2210.02805 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2023

  34. [36]

    Observation of an ultra-high- energy cosmic neutrino with KM3NeT,

    S. Aielloet al.(KM3NeT), “Observation of an ultra-high- energy cosmic neutrino with KM3NeT,” Nature638, 376–382 (2025), [Erratum: Nature 640, E3 (2025)]. 21

    2025

  35. [37]

    Direct detection of Black Holes via electromagnetic radiation

    J. L. G. Sobrinho and P. Augusto, “Direct detection of Black Holes via electromagnetic radiation,” Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.441, 2878–2884 (2014), arXiv:1406.1785 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2014

  36. [38]

    Detecting Planet 9 via Hawking radiation,

    Alexandre Arbey and J ´er´emy Auffinger, “Detecting Planet 9 via Hawking radiation,” (2020), arXiv:2006.02944 [gr-qc]

    work page arXiv 2020

  37. [39]

    Limits on primordial black holes de- tectability with Isatis: a BlackHawk tool,

    J ´er´emy Auffinger, “Limits on primordial black holes de- tectability with Isatis: a BlackHawk tool,” Eur. Phys. J. C82, 384 (2022), arXiv:2201.01265 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2022

  38. [40]

    Primordial black hole constraints with Hawking radiation—A review,

    J ´er´emy Auffinger, “Primordial black hole constraints with Hawking radiation—A review,” Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys.131, 104040 (2023), arXiv:2206.02672 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page arXiv 2023

  39. [41]

    Probing Dark Sectors with Exploding Black Holes: Gamma Rays,

    Michael J. Baker, Joaquim Iguaz Juan, Aidan Symons, and Andrea Thamm, “Probing Dark Sectors with Exploding Black Holes: Gamma Rays,” (2025), arXiv:2512.19603 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2025

  40. [42]

    Refining Galactic primordial black hole evaporation constraints,

    Pedro De la Torre Luque, Jordan Koechler, and Shyam Balaji, “Refining Galactic primordial black hole evaporation constraints,” Phys. Rev. D110, 123022 (2024), [Erratum: Phys.Rev.D 112, 109904 (2025)], arXiv:2406.11949 [astro- ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2024

  41. [43]

    Dark matter in X-rays: revised XMM- Newton limits and new constraints from eROSITA,

    Shyam Balaji, Damon Cleaver, Pedro De la Torre Luque, and Miltiadis Michailidis, “Dark matter in X-rays: revised XMM- Newton limits and new constraints from eROSITA,” JCAP11, 053 (2025), arXiv:2506.02310 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2025

  42. [44]

    BlackHawk: A pub- lic code for calculating the Hawking evaporation spectra of any black hole distribution,

    Alexandre Arbey and J ´er´emy Auffinger, “BlackHawk: A pub- lic code for calculating the Hawking evaporation spectra of any black hole distribution,” Eur. Phys. J. C79, 693 (2019), arXiv:1905.04268 [gr-qc]

    work page arXiv 2019

  43. [45]

    Physics Beyond the Standard Model with BlackHawk v2.0,

    Alexandre Arbey and J ´er´emy Auffinger, “Physics Beyond the Standard Model with BlackHawk v2.0,” Eur. Phys. J. C81, 910 (2021), arXiv:2108.02737 [gr-qc]

    work page arXiv 2021

  44. [46]

    Gravitational ion- ization by Schwarzschild primordial black holes,

    Alexandra P. Klipfel and David I. Kaiser, “Gravitational ion- ization by Schwarzschild primordial black holes,” Phys. Rev. D113, 063031 (2026), arXiv:2601.05935 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2026

  45. [47]

    A new search for primordial black hole evaporations using the Whipple gamma-ray telescope,

    E. T. Lintonet al., “A new search for primordial black hole evaporations using the Whipple gamma-ray telescope,” JCAP 01, 013 (2006)

    2006

  46. [48]

    New limit on the rate density of evaporating black holes,

    D. E. Alexandreaset al., “New limit on the rate density of evaporating black holes,” Phys. Rev. Lett.71, 2524–2527 (1993)

    1993

  47. [49]

    Limits on Primordial Black Hole evapora- tion with the H.E.S.S. array of Cherenkov telescopes,

    J-F. Glicenstein, A. Barnacka, M. Vivier, and T. Herr (H.E.S.S.), “Limits on Primordial Black Hole evapora- tion with the H.E.S.S. array of Cherenkov telescopes,” in 33rd International Cosmic Ray Conference(2013) p. 0930, arXiv:1307.4898 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2013

  48. [50]

    Search for Primordial Black Hole Evaporation with VERITAS,

    Simon Archambault (VERITAS), “Search for Primordial Black Hole Evaporation with VERITAS,” PoSICRC2017, 691 (2018), arXiv:1709.00307 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2018

  49. [52]

    Milagro Limits and HAWC Sensitivity for the Rate-Density of Evaporating Primordial Black Holes

    A. A. Abdoet al., “Milagro Limits and HAWC Sensitivity for the Rate-Density of Evaporating Primordial Black Holes,” Astropart. Phys.64, 4–12 (2015), arXiv:1407.1686 [astro- ph.HE]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2015

  50. [53]

    Asadi and K

    A. Albertet al.(HAWC), “Constraining the Local Burst Rate Density of Primordial Black Holes with HAWC,” JCAP04, 026 (2020), arXiv:1911.04356 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2020

  51. [54]

    Search for the evaporation of primordial black holes with H.E.S.S

    F. Aharonianet al.(H.E.S.S.), “Search for the evaporation of primordial black holes with H.E.S.S.” JCAP04, 040 (2023), arXiv:2303.12855 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2023

  52. [55]

    All-Sky Search for Individual Primordial Black Hole Bursts with LHAASO,

    Zhen Caoet al.(LHAASO), “All-Sky Search for Individual Primordial Black Hole Bursts with LHAASO,” Phys. Rev. Lett.135, 181005 (2025), arXiv:2505.24586 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2025

  53. [56]

    A Microscopic Model of Holography: Survival by the Burden of Memory

    Gia Dvali, “A Microscopic Model of Holography: Survival by the Burden of Memory,” (2018), arXiv:1810.02336 [hep-th]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2018

  54. [57]

    Black hole metamorphosis and stabilization by memory burden,

    Gia Dvali, Lukas Eisemann, Marco Michel, and Sebastian Zell, “Black hole metamorphosis and stabilization by memory burden,” Phys. Rev. D102, 103523 (2020), arXiv:2006.00011 [hep-th]

    work page arXiv 2020

  55. [58]

    Ultralight black holes as sources of high-energy particles,

    Michael Zantedeschi and Luca Visinelli, “Ultralight black holes as sources of high-energy particles,” Phys. Dark Univ. 49, 102034 (2025), arXiv:2410.07037 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2025

  56. [59]

    Tran- sitioning to Memory Burden: Detectable Small Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter,

    Gia Dvali, Michael Zantedeschi, and Sebastian Zell, “Tran- sitioning to Memory Burden: Detectable Small Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter,” (2025), arXiv:2503.21740 [hep- ph]

    work page arXiv 2025

  57. [60]

    Can a breakdown of Hawking evaporation open a new mass window for primor- dial black holes as dark matter?

    Gabriele Montefalcone, Dan Hooper, Katherine Freese, Chris Kelso, Florian Kuhnel, and Pearl Sandick, “Can a breakdown of Hawking evaporation open a new mass window for primor- dial black holes as dark matter?” Phys. Rev. D113, 023524 (2026), arXiv:2503.21005 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page arXiv 2026

  58. [61]

    Massive Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter and their detection with Gravitational Waves

    Juan Garc ´ıa-Bellido, “Massive Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter and their detection with Gravitational Waves,” J. Phys. Conf. Ser.840, 012032 (2017), arXiv:1702.08275 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2017

  59. [62]

    Primordial Black Holes with QCD Color Charge,

    Elba Alonso-Monsalve and David I. Kaiser, “Primordial Black Holes with QCD Color Charge,” Phys. Rev. Lett.132, 231402 (2024), arXiv:2310.16877 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2024

  60. [63]

    Immortality through the dark forces: Dark-charge pri- mordial black holes as dark matter candidates,

    Jessica Santiago, Justin Feng, Sebastian Schuster, and Matt Visser, “Immortality through the dark forces: Dark-charge pri- mordial black holes as dark matter candidates,” Phys. Rev. D 112, 123529 (2025), arXiv:2503.20696 [gr-qc]

    work page arXiv 2025

  61. [64]

    Charge and Particle Conservation in Black-Hole Decay,

    B. Carter, “Charge and Particle Conservation in Black-Hole Decay,” Phys. Rev. Lett.33, 558–561 (1974)

    1974

  62. [65]

    Vacuum polarization and the spontaneous loss of charge by black holes,

    G. W. Gibbons, “Vacuum polarization and the spontaneous loss of charge by black holes,” Commun.Math. Phys.44, 245– 264 (1975)

    1975

  63. [66]

    Spin Distribution of Primordial Black Holes

    Takeshi Chiba and Shuichiro Yokoyama, “Spin Distribution of Primordial Black Holes,” PTEP2017, 083E01 (2017), arXiv:1704.06573 [gr-qc]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2017

  64. [67]

    The evolu- tion of primordial black holes and their final observable spins,

    V . De Luca, G. Franciolini, P. Pani, and A. Riotto, “The evolu- tion of primordial black holes and their final observable spins,” JCAP04, 052 (2020), arXiv:2003.02778 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page arXiv 2020

  65. [68]

    Black hole induced spins from hyperbolic encounters in dense clusters,

    Santiago Jaraba and Juan Garcia-Bellido, “Black hole induced spins from hyperbolic encounters in dense clusters,” Phys. Dark Univ.34, 100882 (2021), arXiv:2106.01436 [gr-qc]

    work page arXiv 2021

  66. [69]

    Extreme-Value Statistics of the Spin of Primordial Black Holes,

    Siri Chongchitnan and Joseph Silk, “Extreme-Value Statistics of the Spin of Primordial Black Holes,” Phys. Rev. D104, 083018 (2021), arXiv:2109.12268 [astro-ph]

    work page arXiv 2021

  67. [70]

    Particle emission rates from a black hole: Massless particles from an uncharged, nonrotating hole,

    Don N. Page, “Particle emission rates from a black hole: Massless particles from an uncharged, nonrotating hole,” Phys. Rev. D13, 198–206 (1976)

    1976

  68. [71]

    Greybody factors for Schwarzschild black holes: Path-ordered exponentials and product integrals

    Finnian Gray and Matt Visser, “Greybody Factors for Schwarzschild Black Holes: Path-Ordered Exponentials and Product Integrals,” Universe4, 93 (2018), arXiv:1512.05018 [gr-qc]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2018

  69. [72]

    An Introduction to PYTHIA 8.2

    Torbj ¨orn Sj ¨ostrand, Stefan Ask, Jesper R. Christiansen, Richard Corke, Nishita Desai, Philip Ilten, Stephen Mrenna, Stefan Prestel, Christine O. Rasmussen, and Peter Z. Skands, “An Introduction to PYTHIA 8.2,” Comput. Phys. Commun. 191, 159–177 (2015), arXiv:1410.3012 [hep-ph]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2015

  70. [73]

    Dark Matter Spectra from the Electroweak to the Planck Scale,

    Christian W. Bauer, Nicholas L. Rodd, and Bryan R. Webber, “Dark Matter Spectra from the Electroweak to the Planck Scale,” J. High Energ. Phys.2021, 121 (2021), arXiv:2007.15001 [hep-ph]

    work page arXiv 2021

  71. [74]

    New cosmological constraints on primordial black holes

    B. J. Carr, Kazunori Kohri, Yuuiti Sendouda, and Jun’ichi Yokoyama, “New cosmological constraints on pri- 22 mordial black holes,” Phys. Rev. D81, 104019 (2010), arXiv:0912.5297 [astro-ph]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2010

  72. [75]

    Constraints on primordial black holes from Galactic gamma-ray background

    B. J. Carr, Kazunori Kohri, Yuuiti Sendouda, and Jun’ichi Yokoyama, “Constraints on primordial black holes from Galactic gamma-ray background,” Phys. Rev. D94, 044029 (2016), arXiv:1604.05349 [astro-ph]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2016

  73. [76]

    INTE- GRAL constraints on primordial black holes and particle dark matter,

    Ranjan Laha, Julian B. Mu ˜noz, and Tracy R. Slatyer, “INTE- GRAL constraints on primordial black holes and particle dark matter,” Phys. Rev. D101, 123514 (2020), arXiv:2004.00627 [astro-ph]

    work page arXiv 2020

  74. [77]

    Coogan, L

    Adam Coogan, Logan Morrison, and Stefano Profumo, “Di- rect Detection of Hawking Radiation from Asteroid-Mass Pri- mordial Black Holes,” Phys. Rev. Lett.126, 171101 (2021), arXiv:2010.04797 [astro-ph]

    work page arXiv 2021

  75. [78]

    Constraining Pri- mordial Black Hole Abundance with the Galactic 511 keV Line,

    William DeRocco and Peter W. Graham, “Constraining Pri- mordial Black Hole Abundance with the Galactic 511 keV Line,” Phys. Rev. Lett.123, 251102 (2019), arXiv:1906.07740 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page arXiv 2019

  76. [79]

    Primordial black holes as a dark matter can- didate are severely constrained by the Galactic Center 511 keV gamma-ray line,

    Ranjan Laha, “Primordial black holes as a dark matter can- didate are severely constrained by the Galactic Center 511 keV gamma-ray line,” Phys. Rev. Lett.123, 251101 (2019), arXiv:1906.09994 [astro-ph]

    work page arXiv 2019

  77. [80]

    Search for Gamma-Ray Emission from Local Primordial Black Holes with the Fermi Large Area Telescope

    M. Ackermannet al.(Fermi-LAT), “Search for Gamma- Ray Emission from Local Primordial Black Holes with the Fermi Large Area Telescope,” Astrophys. J.857, 49 (2018), arXiv:1802.00100 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page internal anchor Pith review Pith/arXiv arXiv 2018

  78. [81]

    How open is the asteroid-mass primordial black hole window?

    Matthew Gorton and Anne M. Green, “How open is the asteroid-mass primordial black hole window?” SciPost Phys. 17, 032 (2024), arXiv:2403.03839 [astro-ph.CO]

    work page arXiv 2024

  79. [82]

    Effects of Hawking evaporation on PBH distributions,

    Markus R. Mosbech and Zachary S. C. Picker, “Effects of Hawking evaporation on PBH distributions,” SciPost Phys.13, 100 (2022), arXiv:2203.05743 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2022

  80. [83]

    Cosmological evolution of primordial black holes,

    Jared R. Rice and Bing Zhang, “Cosmological evolution of primordial black holes,” JHEAp13-14, 22–31 (2017), arXiv:1702.08069 [astro-ph.HE]

    work page arXiv 2017

Showing first 80 references.