Framework estimates context-dependent marginal utility of candidate skills via reward gaps in matched base vs. skill-augmented rollouts to filter skills and co-train policy as generator.
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ZeroSearch: Incentivize the Search Capability of LLMs without Searching
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abstract
Effective information searching is essential for enhancing the reasoning and generation capabilities of large language models (LLMs). Recent research has explored using reinforcement learning (RL) to improve LLMs' search capabilities by interacting with live search engines in real-world environments. While these approaches show promising results, they face two major challenges: (1) Uncontrolled Document Quality: The quality of documents returned by search engines is often unpredictable, introducing noise and instability into the training process. (2) Prohibitively High API Costs: RL training requires frequent rollouts, potentially involving hundreds of thousands of search requests, which incur substantial API expenses and severely constrain scalability. To address these challenges, we introduce ZeroSearch, a novel RL framework that incentivizes the capabilities of LLMs to use a real search engine with simulated searches during training. Our approach begins with lightweight supervised fine-tuning to transform the LLM into a retrieval module capable of generating both useful and noisy documents in response to a query. During RL training, we employ a curriculum-based rollout strategy that incrementally degrades the quality of generated documents, progressively eliciting the model's reasoning ability by exposing it to increasingly challenging retrieval scenarios. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ZeroSearch effectively incentivizes the search capabilities of LLMs using a 3B LLM as the retrieval module. Remarkably, a 7B retrieval module achieves comparable performance to the real search engine, while a 14B retrieval module even surpasses it. Furthermore, it generalizes well across both base and instruction-tuned models of various parameter sizes and is compatible with a wide range of RL algorithms.
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representative citing papers
PyRAG turns multi-hop reasoning into executable Python code over retrieval tools for explicit, verifiable step-by-step RAG.
CuSearch reallocates rollout budget in RLVR toward deeper-search trajectories as a proxy for retrieval supervision density, yielding up to 11.8 exact-match gains over uniform GRPO sampling on ZeroSearch.
LatentRAG performs agentic RAG by generating latent tokens for thoughts and subqueries in one forward pass, matching explicit methods' accuracy on seven benchmarks while reducing latency by ~90%.
MemSearcher trains LLMs to manage compact memory in multi-turn searches via multi-context GRPO for end-to-end RL, outperforming ReAct-style baselines with stable token counts.
GiGPO adds a hierarchical grouping mechanism to group-based RL so that LLM agents receive both global trajectory and local step-level credit signals, yielding >12% gains on ALFWorld and >9% on WebShop over GRPO while keeping the same rollout and memory footprint.
HIPPO is a new RL framework that uses hint-anchored pairwise aggregation to distinguish and promote authentic reasoning deduction in LLMs instead of shortcut memorization from data overlap.
Arbor combines a coordinator, executors, and a hypothesis tree to enable cumulative autonomous research, outperforming Codex and Claude Code by over 2.5x on six real tasks and reaching 86.36% Any Medal on MLE-Bench Lite.
ECPO improves GiGPO by shrinking low-count action advantages and suppressing noisy anchor states, yielding +5.2/+7.3 success gains on ALFWorld/WebShop with Qwen2.5-1.5B models at negligible extra cost.
Search-E1 uses GRPO interleaved with on-policy self-distillation to reach 0.440 average EM on seven QA benchmarks with Qwen2.5-3B, outperforming open-source baselines.
HASP upgrades textual skills into executable Program Functions that intervene in LLM agent loops at inference, post-training, or self-evolution, delivering 25% gains over ReAct and 30.4% over Search-R1 on reasoning benchmarks.
SkillGraph represents skills as nodes in an evolving directed graph with typed dependency edges and updates the graph from RL trajectories to boost compositional task performance.
PiCA uses pivot-based potential rewards derived from historical sub-queries to supply trajectory-aware step guidance in agentic RL, delivering 15% gains on QA benchmarks for 3B/7B models.
SearchSkill improves LLM query planning on knowledge QA by using explicit skill selection from an evolving SkillBank and a two-stage SFT process that aligns training with inference-time skill-grounded execution.
AIPO adds active multi-agent consultation (Verify, Knowledge, Reasoning agents) plus custom importance sampling to RLVR training so LLMs expand their reasoning boundary and then operate without the agents.
T²PO improves stability and performance in multi-turn agentic RL by using uncertainty dynamics at token and turn levels to guide exploration and avoid wasted rollouts.
TRUSTEE uses an 8B LM to simulate complete dynamic environments for RL-based tool learning and outperforms baselines that require extra external resources.
Survey that defines agentic RL for LLMs via POMDPs, introduces a taxonomy of planning/tool-use/memory/reasoning capabilities and domains, and compiles open environments from over 500 papers.
MultiSearch uses parallel multi-query retrieval plus explicit merging inside a reinforcement-learning loop to improve retrieval-augmented reasoning, outperforming baselines on seven QA benchmarks.
CLI agents trained with RL benefit from selective observation via σ-Reveal and structured credit assignment via A³ that leverages AST action sub-chains and trajectory margins.
ERL trains LLMs to erase faulty reasoning steps and regenerate them in place, yielding gains of up to 8.48% EM on multi-hop QA benchmarks like HotpotQA.
Kimi K2 is a 1-trillion-parameter MoE model that leads open-source non-thinking models on agentic benchmarks including 65.8 on SWE-Bench Verified and 66.1 on Tau2-Bench.
Mujica-MyGo decomposes multi-turn RAG interactions via multi-agent workflows and applies minimalist policy gradient optimization to improve performance on QA benchmarks while avoiding long-context problems.
CheckRLM extracts factual claims from reasoning chains, detects inconsistencies via RAG, and refines them with low-cost corrections to reduce error accumulation in Reasoning Language Models.
citing papers explorer
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Co-Evolving Skill Generation and Policy Optimization
Framework estimates context-dependent marginal utility of candidate skills via reward gaps in matched base vs. skill-augmented rollouts to filter skills and co-train policy as generator.
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Retrieval is Cheap, Show Me the Code: Executable Multi-Hop Reasoning for Retrieval-Augmented Generation
PyRAG turns multi-hop reasoning into executable Python code over retrieval tools for explicit, verifiable step-by-step RAG.
-
CuSearch: Curriculum Rollout Sampling via Search Depth for Agentic RAG
CuSearch reallocates rollout budget in RLVR toward deeper-search trajectories as a proxy for retrieval supervision density, yielding up to 11.8 exact-match gains over uniform GRPO sampling on ZeroSearch.
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LatentRAG: Latent Reasoning and Retrieval for Efficient Agentic RAG
LatentRAG performs agentic RAG by generating latent tokens for thoughts and subqueries in one forward pass, matching explicit methods' accuracy on seven benchmarks while reducing latency by ~90%.
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MemSearcher: Training LLMs to Reason, Search and Manage Memory via End-to-End Reinforcement Learning
MemSearcher trains LLMs to manage compact memory in multi-turn searches via multi-context GRPO for end-to-end RL, outperforming ReAct-style baselines with stable token counts.
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Group-in-Group Policy Optimization for LLM Agent Training
GiGPO adds a hierarchical grouping mechanism to group-based RL so that LLM agents receive both global trajectory and local step-level credit signals, yielding >12% gains on ALFWorld and >9% on WebShop over GRPO while keeping the same rollout and memory footprint.
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To Reason or to Fabricate: Reasoning Without Shortcuts via Hint-Anchored Pairwise Aggregation
HIPPO is a new RL framework that uses hint-anchored pairwise aggregation to distinguish and promote authentic reasoning deduction in LLMs instead of shortcut memorization from data overlap.
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Toward Generalist Autonomous Research via Hypothesis-Tree Refinement
Arbor combines a coordinator, executors, and a hypothesis tree to enable cumulative autonomous research, outperforming Codex and Claude Code by over 2.5x on six real tasks and reaching 86.36% Any Medal on MLE-Bench Lite.
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When Denser Credit Is Not Enough: Evidence-Calibrated Policy Optimization for Long-Horizon LLM Agent Training
ECPO improves GiGPO by shrinking low-count action advantages and suppressing noisy anchor states, yielding +5.2/+7.3 success gains on ALFWorld/WebShop with Qwen2.5-1.5B models at negligible extra cost.
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Search-E1: Self-Distillation Drives Self-Evolution in Search-Augmented Reasoning
Search-E1 uses GRPO interleaved with on-policy self-distillation to reach 0.440 average EM on seven QA benchmarks with Qwen2.5-3B, outperforming open-source baselines.
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SkillGraph: Skill-Augmented Reinforcement Learning for Agents via Evolving Skill Graphs
SkillGraph represents skills as nodes in an evolving directed graph with typed dependency edges and updates the graph from RL trajectories to boost compositional task performance.
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PiCA: Pivot-Based Credit Assignment for Search Agentic Reinforcement Learning
PiCA uses pivot-based potential rewards derived from historical sub-queries to supply trajectory-aware step guidance in agentic RL, delivering 15% gains on QA benchmarks for 3B/7B models.
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SearchSkill: Teaching LLMs to Use Search Tools with Evolving Skill Banks
SearchSkill improves LLM query planning on knowledge QA by using explicit skill selection from an evolving SkillBank and a two-stage SFT process that aligns training with inference-time skill-grounded execution.
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AIPO: Learning to Reason from Active Interaction
AIPO adds active multi-agent consultation (Verify, Knowledge, Reasoning agents) plus custom importance sampling to RLVR training so LLMs expand their reasoning boundary and then operate without the agents.
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T$^2$PO: Uncertainty-Guided Exploration Control for Stable Multi-Turn Agentic Reinforcement Learning
T²PO improves stability and performance in multi-turn agentic RL by using uncertainty dynamics at token and turn levels to guide exploration and avoid wasted rollouts.
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Democratizing Tool Learning with Environments Fully Simulated by a Free 8B Language Model
TRUSTEE uses an 8B LM to simulate complete dynamic environments for RL-based tool learning and outperforms baselines that require extra external resources.
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Scaling Retrieval-Augmented Reasoning with Parallel Search and Explicit Merging
MultiSearch uses parallel multi-query retrieval plus explicit merging inside a reinforcement-learning loop to improve retrieval-augmented reasoning, outperforming baselines on seven QA benchmarks.
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Learning CLI Agents with Structured Action Credit under Selective Observation
CLI agents trained with RL benefit from selective observation via σ-Reveal and structured credit assignment via A³ that leverages AST action sub-chains and trajectory margins.
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Erase to Improve: Erasable Reinforcement Learning for Search-Augmented LLMs
ERL trains LLMs to erase faulty reasoning steps and regenerate them in place, yielding gains of up to 8.48% EM on multi-hop QA benchmarks like HotpotQA.
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Kimi K2: Open Agentic Intelligence
Kimi K2 is a 1-trillion-parameter MoE model that leads open-source non-thinking models on agentic benchmarks including 65.8 on SWE-Bench Verified and 66.1 on Tau2-Bench.
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Advancing Multi-Agent RAG Systems with Minimalist Reinforcement Learning
Mujica-MyGo decomposes multi-turn RAG interactions via multi-agent workflows and applies minimalist policy gradient optimization to improve performance on QA benchmarks while avoiding long-context problems.
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CheckRLM: Effective Knowledge-Thought Coherence Checking in Retrieval-Augmented Reasoning
CheckRLM extracts factual claims from reasoning chains, detects inconsistencies via RAG, and refines them with low-cost corrections to reduce error accumulation in Reasoning Language Models.
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As We May Search
Proposes local-first IR framework with experiments showing dense retrieval maintains over 91% nDCG@10 up to 100K documents on consumer hardware and 7B local models reach within 4 points of cloud baselines.
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R$^2$-Searcher: Calibrating Retrieval and Reasoning Boundaries for Agentic Search
R²-Searcher introduces fine-grained evidence modeling, retrieval reflection, and R²PO RL to calibrate retrieval-reasoning boundaries and improve multi-hop QA performance.
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DocArena: Turning Raw Documents into Controllable Training Environments for Document Search Agents
DocArena automates creation of multimodal document QA training data via MLLM-based structuring and cross-page reasoning pairs, yielding agents with top retrieval and QA performance in unified tests.
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Agentic Reasoning for Large Language Models
The survey structures agentic reasoning for LLMs into foundational, self-evolving, and collective multi-agent layers while distinguishing in-context orchestration from post-training optimization and reviewing applications across domains.