Proposes Spatial Narrative Score (SNS) evaluation for VLMs' camera motion understanding and introduces CaMo model achieving consistent performance on SNS and direct QA.
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Spatial-MLLM: Boosting MLLM Capabilities in Visual-based Spatial Intelligence
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abstract
Recent advancements in Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have significantly enhanced performance on 2D visual tasks. However, improving their spatial intelligence remains a challenge. Existing 3D MLLMs always rely on additional 3D or 2.5D data to incorporate spatial awareness, restricting their utility in scenarios with only 2D inputs, such as images or videos. In this paper, we present Spatial-MLLM, a novel framework for visual-based spatial reasoning from purely 2D observations. Unlike conventional video MLLMs which rely on CLIP-based visual encoders optimized for semantic understanding, our key insight is to unleash the strong structure prior from the feed-forward visual geometry foundation model. Specifically, we propose a dual-encoder architecture: a pretrained 2D visual encoder to extract semantic features, and a 3D spatial encoder-initialized from the backbone of the visual geometry model-to extract 3D structure features. A connector then integrates both features into unified visual tokens for enhanced spatial understanding. Furthermore, we propose a space-aware frame sampling strategy at inference time, which selects the spatially informative frames of a video sequence, ensuring that even under limited token length, the model focuses on frames critical for spatial reasoning. Beyond architecture improvements, we construct a training dataset from multiple sources and train the model on it using supervised fine-tuning and GRPO. Extensive experiments on various real-world datasets demonstrate that Spatial-MLLM achieves state-of-the-art performance in a wide range of visual-based spatial understanding and reasoning tasks. Project page: https://diankun-wu.github.io/Spatial-MLLM/.
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representative citing papers
ViSRA boosts MLLM 3D spatial reasoning performance by up to 28.9% on unseen tasks via a plug-and-play video-based agent that extracts explicit spatial cues from expert models without any post-training.
Fine-tuning multimodal models on a new synthetic spatial benchmark improves generative spatial compliance on real and synthetic tasks and transfers to better spatial understanding.
Orientation information is recoverable from MLLM visual encoder embeddings via linear regression, contradicting the hypothesis that failures originate in the encoders.
A 3D-grounded autoencoder and diffusion transformer allow direct generation of 3D scenes in an implicit latent space using a fixed 1K-token representation for arbitrary views and resolutions.
PinpointQA is the first benchmark dataset for small object-centric spatial understanding in indoor videos, with four progressive tasks built from ScanNet data.
SCP defines a new benchmark task for predicting spatial causal outcomes beyond direct observation and shows that 23 leading models lag far behind humans on it.
SpatialBench creates a five-level framework and 15-task benchmark to measure hierarchical spatial reasoning in MLLMs, finding strong basic perception but weak symbolic reasoning, causal inference, and planning.
AVA-Bench evaluates vision foundation models by disentangling 14 atomic visual abilities with aligned training-test distributions to reveal precise ability fingerprints.
GASP injects geometric priors into VLMs via a deep-supervised correspondence head trained on video point correspondences and depth consistency, raising internal matching accuracy and delivering gains on spatial benchmarks without any 3D VQA data.
GeoWeaver performs token-adaptive geometric grounding on visual tokens from a multi-level bank prior to language modeling to support better spatio-temporal reasoning.
SWIM aligns cross-attention maps from object nouns to ground-truth masks during training on the new NL-Refer dataset to enable text-only fine-grained video object understanding in MLLMs.
DepthVLM converts a standard VLM into a dense metric depth predictor by attaching a lightweight head and training under unified vision-text supervision, outperforming prior VLMs and some pure vision models on a new indoor-outdoor benchmark.
SpatialForge synthesizes 10 million spatial QA pairs from in-the-wild 2D images to train VLMs for better depth ordering, layout, and viewpoint-dependent reasoning.
SpatialFusion internalizes 3D geometric awareness into unified image generation models by pairing an MLLM with a spatial transformer that produces depth maps to constrain diffusion generation.
ReplicateAnyScene performs fully automated zero-shot video-to-compositional-3D reconstruction by cascading alignments of generic priors from vision foundation models across textual, visual, and spatial dimensions.
GUIDE unrolls multi-granularity geometric priors layer-wise into early MLLM layers with gating to improve spatial reasoning and perception.
Motion-MLLM integrates IMU egomotion data into MLLMs using cascaded filtering and asymmetric fusion to ground visual content in physical trajectories for scale-aware 3D understanding, achieving competitive accuracy at higher speed.
MLLMs show a large gap in spatial mathematical reasoning compared to humans, and a new 10,000-problem dataset helps narrow it through training.
VaLR generates vision-aligned latent tokens before each reasoning step to preserve perceptual cues, improving VSI-Bench accuracy from 33.0% to 52.9%.
SpaceDrive integrates 3D positional encodings derived from depth and ego-states into VLMs, replacing digit tokens to improve spatial reasoning and trajectory regression in autonomous driving.
Geometry Forcing aligns video diffusion representations with geometric foundation model features via angular cosine and scale regression objectives to improve 3D consistency in generated videos.
VLM-3R augments VLMs with implicit 3D tokens from monocular video via geometry encoding and 200K+ 3D reconstructive QA pairs, plus a new 138K-pair temporal benchmark, to support spatial and embodied reasoning.
GR3D is a VLM that combines explicit 2D, implicit 2D, and monocular 3D grounding mechanisms to improve performance on spatial understanding benchmarks.
citing papers explorer
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CaMo: Camera Motion Grounded Evaluation and Training for Vision-Language Models
Proposes Spatial Narrative Score (SNS) evaluation for VLMs' camera motion understanding and introduces CaMo model achieving consistent performance on SNS and direct QA.
-
ViSRA: A Video-based Spatial Reasoning Agent for Multi-modal Large Language Models
ViSRA boosts MLLM 3D spatial reasoning performance by up to 28.9% on unseen tasks via a plug-and-play video-based agent that extracts explicit spatial cues from expert models without any post-training.
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Exploring Spatial Intelligence from a Generative Perspective
Fine-tuning multimodal models on a new synthetic spatial benchmark improves generative spatial compliance on real and synthetic tasks and transfers to better spatial understanding.
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Why MLLMs Struggle to Determine Object Orientations
Orientation information is recoverable from MLLM visual encoder embeddings via linear regression, contradicting the hypothesis that failures originate in the encoders.
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Any 3D Scene is Worth 1K Tokens: 3D-Grounded Representation for Scene Generation at Scale
A 3D-grounded autoencoder and diffusion transformer allow direct generation of 3D scenes in an implicit latent space using a fixed 1K-token representation for arbitrary views and resolutions.
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PinpointQA: A Dataset and Benchmark for Small Object-Centric Spatial Understanding in Indoor Videos
PinpointQA is the first benchmark dataset for small object-centric spatial understanding in indoor videos, with four progressive tasks built from ScanNet data.
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SCP: Spatial Causal Prediction in Video
SCP defines a new benchmark task for predicting spatial causal outcomes beyond direct observation and shows that 23 leading models lag far behind humans on it.
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SpatialBench: Benchmarking Multimodal Large Language Models for Spatial Cognition
SpatialBench creates a five-level framework and 15-task benchmark to measure hierarchical spatial reasoning in MLLMs, finding strong basic perception but weak symbolic reasoning, causal inference, and planning.
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AVA-Bench: Atomic Visual Ability Benchmark for Vision Foundation Models
AVA-Bench evaluates vision foundation models by disentangling 14 atomic visual abilities with aligned training-test distributions to reveal precise ability fingerprints.
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Beyond 3D VQAs: Injecting 3D Spatial Priors into Vision-Language Models for Enhanced Geometric Reasoning
GASP injects geometric priors into VLMs via a deep-supervised correspondence head trained on video point correspondences and depth consistency, raising internal matching accuracy and delivering gains on spatial benchmarks without any 3D VQA data.
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GeoWeaver: Grounding Visual Tokens with Geometric Evidence before Scene Reasoning
GeoWeaver performs token-adaptive geometric grounding on visual tokens from a multi-level bank prior to language modeling to support better spatio-temporal reasoning.
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See What I Mean: Aligning Vision and Language Representations for Video Fine-grained Object Understanding
SWIM aligns cross-attention maps from object nouns to ground-truth masks during training on the new NL-Refer dataset to enable text-only fine-grained video object understanding in MLLMs.
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Unlocking Dense Metric Depth Estimation in VLMs
DepthVLM converts a standard VLM into a dense metric depth predictor by attaching a lightweight head and training under unified vision-text supervision, outperforming prior VLMs and some pure vision models on a new indoor-outdoor benchmark.
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SpatialForge: Bootstrapping 3D-Aware Spatial Reasoning from Open-World 2D Images
SpatialForge synthesizes 10 million spatial QA pairs from in-the-wild 2D images to train VLMs for better depth ordering, layout, and viewpoint-dependent reasoning.
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SpatialFusion: Endowing Unified Image Generation with Intrinsic 3D Geometric Awareness
SpatialFusion internalizes 3D geometric awareness into unified image generation models by pairing an MLLM with a spatial transformer that produces depth maps to constrain diffusion generation.
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ReplicateAnyScene: Zero-Shot Video-to-3D Composition via Textual-Visual-Spatial Alignment
ReplicateAnyScene performs fully automated zero-shot video-to-compositional-3D reconstruction by cascading alignments of generic priors from vision foundation models across textual, visual, and spatial dimensions.
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Let Geometry GUIDE: Layer-wise Unrolling of Geometric Priors in Multimodal LLMs
GUIDE unrolls multi-granularity geometric priors layer-wise into early MLLM layers with gating to improve spatial reasoning and perception.
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Feeling the Space: Egomotion-Aware Video Representation for Efficient and Accurate 3D Scene Understanding
Motion-MLLM integrates IMU egomotion data into MLLMs using cascaded filtering and asymmetric fusion to ground visual content in physical trajectories for scale-aware 3D understanding, achieving competitive accuracy at higher speed.
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Do MLLMs Really Understand Space? A Mathematical Reasoning Evaluation
MLLMs show a large gap in spatial mathematical reasoning compared to humans, and a new 10,000-problem dataset helps narrow it through training.
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Vision-aligned Latent Reasoning for Multi-modal Large Language Model
VaLR generates vision-aligned latent tokens before each reasoning step to preserve perceptual cues, improving VSI-Bench accuracy from 33.0% to 52.9%.
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SpaceDrive: Infusing Spatial Awareness into VLM-based Autonomous Driving
SpaceDrive integrates 3D positional encodings derived from depth and ego-states into VLMs, replacing digit tokens to improve spatial reasoning and trajectory regression in autonomous driving.
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Geometry Forcing: Marrying Video Diffusion and 3D Representation for Consistent World Modeling
Geometry Forcing aligns video diffusion representations with geometric foundation model features via angular cosine and scale regression objectives to improve 3D consistency in generated videos.
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VLM-3R: Vision-Language Models Augmented with Instruction-Aligned 3D Reconstruction
VLM-3R augments VLMs with implicit 3D tokens from monocular video via geometry encoding and 200K+ 3D reconstructive QA pairs, plus a new 138K-pair temporal benchmark, to support spatial and embodied reasoning.
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Grounded 3D-Aware Spatial Vision-Language Modeling
GR3D is a VLM that combines explicit 2D, implicit 2D, and monocular 3D grounding mechanisms to improve performance on spatial understanding benchmarks.
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Thinking with Novel Views: A Systematic Analysis of Generative-Augmented Spatial Intelligence
Integrating generative novel-view synthesis into LMM reasoning loops improves accuracy on spatial subtasks by 1.3 to 3.9 percentage points across multiple models and tasks.
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SpatialImaginer: Towards Adaptive Visual Imagination for Spatial Reasoning
SpatialImaginer integrates visual imagination with textual chain-of-thought to improve spatial reasoning robustness in multimodal large language models.
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OpenSpatial: A Principled Data Engine for Empowering Spatial Intelligence
OpenSpatial supplies a principled open-source data engine and 3-million-sample dataset that raises spatial-reasoning model performance by an average of 19 percent on benchmarks.
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LASAR: Towards Spatio-temporal Reasoning with Latent Cognitive Map
LASAR pairs a dual-memory system with spatio-temporal contrastive learning to induce latent cognitive maps, reporting 2-3.5% zero-shot gains on VLN-CE and VSI-Bench plus high map self-consistency.
- SpaceDG: Benchmarking Spatial Intelligence under Visual Degradation
- OpenWorldLib: A Unified Codebase and Definition of Advanced World Models
- EgoMind: Activating Spatial Cognition through Linguistic Reasoning in MLLMs